Those who argue for the benefit of the decision to drop the bombs, in general approve that bombings were finished the military months faster than will take place differently, thus saving a lot of lives. It is discussed, that there would have been massive on both sides in the impending Operation Downfall invasion of Japan,( Tsuyoshi Hasegawa 2005) and that even if Operation Downfall was postponed, the status quo of conventional bombings and the Japanese occupations in Asia were causing tremendous loss of life.
The Americans expected to lose a lot of soldier in the planned intrusion of Japan, though actual number of expected misfortunes and wounded is subordinated to some debate. It depends on a constancy and reliability of the Japanese resistance, and whether and the Allies would have invaded only Kyūshū in November 1945 or if a follow up Allied landing near Tokyo, projected for March 1946, would have been needed. Years after the war, Secretary of State James Byrnes claimed that 500,000 "American" lives would have been lost, however by summer 1945, U.S. military schedulers projected 20,000-110,000 battle deaths since initial November 1945 intrusions, with approximately three to four times that number wounded. (The Complete USA killed in operation on all fronts in the Second World war in, almost four years of war were 292,000.)
Political stalemate advanced between the military and civil leaders of Japan, the military increasingly determined to fight despite all costs and odds and the civilian leadership seeking a way to negotiate an end to the war. Further complication of the decision was the fact that any cabinet could not exist without the representative of the Imperial Japanese Army. This meant that the Army could veto any decision by having its Minister resign, thus making it the most powerful post on the SWC. In early August of 1945 the cabinet was equally split between those who advocated an end to the war and those who would not surrender under any circumstances. The hawks consisted of General Korechika Anami, General Yoshijiro Umezu and Admiral Teijiro Toyoda and were led by Anami. The doves consisted of Prime Minister Kantaro Suzuki, Naval Minister Mitsumasa Yonai,and Shigenori Togo and were led by Togo.( The Pacific War Research Society 2005)
The peace fraction, led by Togo grasped on the bombing as the decisive justification of delivery. Kōichi Kido, one of Emperor Hirohito's closest advisers, stated: "We of the peace party were assisted by the atomic bomb in our endeavor to end the war." Hisatsune Sakomizu, the chief Cabinet secretary in 1945, called the bombing "a golden opportunity given by heaven for Japan to end the war." Hisatsune Sakomizu, main secretary of a Study in 1945, named the bombing "a gold opportunity given by heavens for Japan to finish war." The pro-peace civilian leadership was then able to use the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to convince the military that no amount of courage, skill, and fearless combat could help Japan against the power of atomic weapons. The cabinet made a unanimous decision to surrender and accept the terms of the Potsdam agreement.
In 1963 the bombings were a subject of the judicial review in Ryuichi Shimoda et al. v. The State. For 22- nd anniversary of an attack on Pearl Harbor, District court of Tokyo refused to operate on legality of the nuclear weapon in general, but has found, that "the attacks upon Hiroshima and Nagasaki caused such severe and indiscriminate suffering that they did violate the most basic legal principles governing the conduct of war" (Falk, Richard A.. "The Claimants of Hiroshima"). In the opinion of the court, the act of dropping an atomic bomb on cities was at the time governed by international law found in the Hague Regulations on Land Warfare of 1907 and the Hague Draft Rules of Air Warfare of 1922–1923 and was therefore illegal.
Takashi Hiraoka, mayor of Hiroshima, upholding nuclear disarmament, said in a hearing to The Hague International Court of Justice (ICJ): "It is clear that the use of nuclear weapons, which cause indiscriminate mass murder that leaves [effects on] survivors for decades, is a violation of international law". Iccho Ito, mayor of Nagasaki announced in the same hearing:
“It is said that the descendants of the atomic bomb survivors will have to be monitored for several generations to clarify the genetic impact, which means that the descendants will live in anxiety for [decades] to come. [...] with their colossal power and capacity for slaughter and destruction, nuclear weapons make no distinction between combatants and non-combatants or between military installations and civilian communities [...] The use of nuclear weapons [...] therefore is a manifest infraction of international law.”
John Bolton, former US ambassador to the United Nations, used Hiroshima and Nagasaki as examples why the US should not adhere to the International Criminal Court (ICC):
"A fair reading of the treaty (the Rome Statute concerning the ICC), for example, leaves the objective observer unable to answer with confidence whether the United States was guilty of war crimes for its aerial bombing campaigns over Germany and Japan in World War II. Indeed, if anything, a straightforward reading of the language probably indicates that the court would find the United States guilty. A fortiori, these provisions seem to imply that the United States would have been guilty of a war crime for dropping atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This is intolerable and unacceptable."
Although bombings do not meet definition genocide, some believe that this definition is too strict, and that these bombings represent a genocide. For example, University of Chicago historian Bruce Cumings states there is a consensus among historians to Martin Sherwin's statement, that "the Nagasaki bomb was gratuitous at best and genocidal at worst."
Those who proves, that the bombings were unnecessary on the military bases hold that Japan already was in essence defeated also ready to surrender.
One of the most notable individuals with this opinion was then-General Dwight D. Eisenhower. He wrote in his memoir The White House Years:
"In 1945 Secretary of War Stimson, visiting my headquarters in Germany, informed me that our government was preparing to drop an atomic bomb on Japan. I was one of those who felt that there were a number of cogent reasons to question the wisdom of such an act. During his recitation of the relevant facts, I had been conscious of a feeling of depression and so I voiced to him my grave misgivings, first on the basis of my belief that Japan was already defeated and that dropping the bomb was completely unnecessary, and secondly because I thought that our country should avoid shocking world opinion by the use of a weapon whose employment was, I thought, no longer mandatory as a measure to save American lives." (Eisenhower, Dwight D.1963)
Other U.S. military officers who disagreed with the necessity of the bombings include General Douglas MacArthur (the highest-ranking officer in the Pacific Theater), Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy (the Chief of Staff to the President), General Carl Spaatz (commander of the U.S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific), and Brigadier General Carter Clarke (the military intelligence officer who prepared intercepted Japanese cables for U.S. officials), and Admiral Ernest King, U.S. Chief of Naval Operations, Undersecretary of the Navy Ralph A. Bard, and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet "The use of [the atomic bombs] at Hiroshima and Nagasaki was of no material assistance in our war against Japan. The Japanese were already defeated and ready to surrender." Admiral William D. Leahy, Chief of Staff to President Truman.
The United States Strategic Bombing Survey, after interviewing hundreds of Japanese civilian and military leaders after Japan surrendered, reported:
"Based on a detailed investigation of all the facts, and supported by the testimony of the surviving Japanese leaders involved, it is the Survey's opinion that certainly prior to 31 December 1945, and in all probability prior to 1 November 1945, Japan would have surrendered even if the atomic bombs had not been dropped, even if Russia had not entered the war, and even if no invasion had been planned or contemplated."
The review assumed, that has continued usual bombing attacks on Japan -- with additional direct, and indirect accidents - will be necessary to compel delivery by November or mentioned dates of December.
Many, including General MacArthur, have contended that Japan would have surrendered before the bombings if the U.S. had notified Japan that it would accept a surrender that allowed Emperor Hirohito to keep his position as titular leader of Japan, a condition the U.S. did in fact allow after Japan surrendered. U.S. leadership knew this, through intercepts of encoded Japanese messages, but refused to clarify Washington's willingness to accept this condition. Before the bombings, the position of the Japanese leadership with regards to surrender was divided. Several diplomats favored surrender, while the leaders of the Japanese military voiced a commitment to fighting a "decisive battle" on Kyūshū, hoping that they could negotiate better terms for an armistice afterward. The Japanese government did not decide what terms, beyond preservation of an imperial system, they would have accepted to end the war; as late as August 9, the Supreme War Council was still split, with the hard-liners insisting Japan should demobilize its own forces, no war crimes trials would be conducted, and no occupation of Japan would be allowed. Only the direct intervention of the emperor ended the dispute, and even then a military coup was attempted to prevent the surrender.
Historian Tsuyoshi Hasegawa's research has led him to conclude that the atomic bombings themselves were not even the principal reason for capitulation. Instead, he contends, it was the swift and devastating Soviet victories in Manchuria that forced the Japanese surrender on August 15, 1945.
1. Tsuyoshi Hasegawa (2005). Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 298–299.
2. The Pacific War Research Society (2005). Japan's Longest Day. Oxford University Press, 352.
4. Falk, Richard A.. "The Claimants of Hiroshima", The Nation, 1965-02-15. reprinted in (1966) "The Shimoda Case: Challenge and Response", in Richard A. Falk, Saul H. Mendlovitz eds.: The Strategy of World Order. Volume: 1. New York: World Law Fund, pp. 307-13.
5. November 1995 Public Sitting, in the Case of Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflicts at La Hague International Court of Justice
6. Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1963). The White House Years; Mandate For Change: 1953-1956. Doubleday & Company, pp. 312-313.
Wednesday, November 28, 2007
Monday, November 26, 2007
Informative Essay with Surprising Reversal
“Like other professions, the field of accountancy has come to recognize that the younger generation of employees is more concerned about balancing their private and professional lives than older workers. Accordingly, accounting organizations headed by the AICPA and accounting firms across the US are teaming up with businesses to develop programs designed to help both employers and employees address lifestyle issues that face dual professional families.”(1) Changing workforce demographics is shaping the future of the accounting profession. Statistics show that the number of people and dual-career families entering the labor pool is increasing. In order to become a professional accountant an accounting and finance degree is neither necessary nor sufficient. This fact is very difficult for people to realize. (Certainly, the reverse also holds: career opportunities for accounting and finance graduates are not restricted to the accounting profession). These pages were written to provide some basic background information on the accounting profession, together with the transition from university student to professionally qualified accountant.
“The image of accountants as dull, middle-aged men dressed in grey suits is fast disappearing. The accounting profession is associated with high salaries and a bewildering array of career opportunities including traditional auditing and assurance work, management consulting, corporate finance, IT consulting, tax planning, human resources (HR) and insolvency. In addition, the leaders of many top companies are qualified accountants.”(2)
Most accountants work in a typical office setting. Self-employed accountants may be able to do part of their work at home. Accountants and auditors employed by public accounting firms and government agencies may travel frequently to perform audits at clients’ places of business, branches of their firm, or government facilities. Most accountants and auditors generally work a standard 40-hour week, but many work longer hours, particularly if they are self-employed and have numerous clients. Tax specialists often work long hours during the tax season. They promise that the changing role of accountants will spur job growth. In response to market demand, these professionals will offer more management and consulting services as they take on a greater advisory role and develop more sophisticated and flexible accounting systems. By focusing more on analysing operations rather than just providing financial data, accountants will help to increase the demand for their services. “An increasingly important area of accounting and auditing is internal auditing. Internal auditors verify the accuracy of their organization’s records and check for mismanagement, waste, or fraud. Specifically, they examine and evaluate their firms’ financial and information systems, management procedures, and internal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are adequate to protect against fraud and waste. They also review company operations—evaluating their efficiency, effectiveness, and compliance with corporate policies and procedures, laws, and government regulations”.(3) There are many types of highly specialized auditors, such as electronic data processing, environment, development, legal, premium insurance, bank, and public health auditor services. As the systems of the computer make the information, more duly, internal auditors help the managers to base their decisions concerning the fact sheet, faster than personal supervision. The auditor can also recommend a control facility for system of the computer of their organization to guarantee reliability of system and integrity of the data.
The computers quickly change character of work for the majority of the accounts and auditors. Through the special software packages, the accounter is summarized with the bargains in standard formats for the financial records and organize the data in special formats for the financial analysis. These packages of accounting reduce very much the quantity of tiresome manual work connected to the data and storage of the record. Personal and laptop computers allow the bookkeepers and auditors to be more mobile and to use systems of the computer of their clients to take the information from the large computers of the universal computer. As a result of these tendencies growing number of the accountants and auditors has extensive skills of the computer and specializes in correction of problems with the software or development of the software to meet unique data requirements. (Blumstein, 71).
“However, this trend will be counteracted somewhat by a decrease in the demand for traditional services and growing use of accounting software. Accountants will spend less time performing audits due to potential liability and relatively low profits, and will shift away from tax preparation due to the increasing popularity of tax preparation firms. As computer programs continue simplifying some accounting-related tasks, clerical staff will increasingly handle many routine calculations.”(3)
Proficiency in accounting and auditing computer software, or expertise in specialized areas such as international business, specific industries, or current legislation, may also be helpful in landing certain accounting and auditing jobs. In addition, employers increasingly seek applicants with strong interpersonal and communication skills. Regardless of one’s qualifications, however, competition will remain keen for the most prestigious jobs in major accounting and business firms.
Do you ever think where the accountant may work? There is a world of possibility for an accountant. They work in business, sports, the arts, government, education, the non-profit sector - the choice is really great! Accounting opens doors in every kind of business coast to coast. You could work for a large, international accounting firm or a small, local accounting firm, a corporation or small business, a government agency or non-profit organization, or a college or university. Accounting is also an excellent foundation for starting your own practice or company. Others for whom training in accounting is invaluable include appraisers, budget officers, loan officers, financial analysts and managers, bank officers, actuaries, underwriters, tax collectors and revenue agents, FBI special agents, securities sales representatives, and purchasing agents.
“If you work for an accounting firm, as an accountant you may deal with clients in a wide range of industries. For example, you could be assigned to a client in the music industry, examining the company’s financial records, providing tax advice or developing a computer system to track the sale of CDs.
If you work directly for a company, you could be involved in everything from advising on how to increase profits to analysing future financing needs. If you work in government you might find yourself testifying on the impact of pending tax legislation. You can even use your accounting expertise to instruct students or conduct research.”(4)
Accounting demands a various number of skills, aptitudes, and technologies. You should have excellent oral and written communication skills, strong problem-solving abilities, and technical know-how. Once you may be preparing a financial report on the computer; the next you may be presenting your findings on video.
As for the skills an accountant must have it is at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting, or a bachelor’s degree in another subject with a master’s degree in accounting. In addition to accounting and business courses, one should take classes in communications, the humanities, the sciences, economics, and computer applications. So it seems really promising. Although applicants with a master’s degree in accounting, or a master’s degree in business administration with a concentration in accounting, usually have an advantage in the job market.
Another fortune in this profession is that an accountant doesn’t work with the words, language and that long process of persuading people. Accountants and auditors design internal control systems and analyse financial data. It is nearly impossible to overstate the benefits of being able to write well. It is even more important to be able to write well than to speak well, at least until you reach very senior levels of an organization or are interacting regularly with the public directly as a representative of a company. Written communication has a central role in the success of an organization and the ability to express yourself only adequately is simply not, well, adequate. And if you cannot communicate well in writing you’re going to have a very tough time making a successful career from your first job. Even if this handicap doesn’t inhibit you in an entry-level position, you will run into a wall on your first promotion. The importance of effective writing in the workplace cannot be over-emphasized. “Clear communication not only frees the employee to perform their tasks efficiently, it bolsters self-confidence and enhances the creative process in the entire staff. People know they are starting on solid ground and have confidence that their efforts will not be wasted or unappreciated. Clear communication shows respect for entire staff and enables excellence in business.”(5) My future career doesn’t require writing at all. I will write often of course, but this will be numbers, not letters and words, so this is a technical writing. An accountant usually calculates, so the documents I will write are just forms for filling.
Especially pleasant for me was to get to know that employment of accountants is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2008. In addition to openings resulting from growth, the need to replace accountants and auditors who retire or transfer to other occupations will produce thousands of job openings annually in this large occupation. (Rest, 46) As the economy grows, the number of business establishments will increase, requiring more accountants and auditors to set up books, prepare taxes, and provide management advice. As these businesses grow, the volume and complexity of information developed by accountants and auditors regarding costs, expenditures, and taxes will increase as well. More complex requirements for accountants and auditors also arise from changes in legislation related to taxes, financial reporting standards, business investments, mergers, and other financial matters. In addition, businesses will increasingly need quick, accurate, and individually tailored financial information due to the demands of growing international competition. These trends will positively affect the employment of accountants and auditors.
So the only language I will require, analysing data/information/statistics is numbers mixed with formal English phrases. For sure I will persuade a lot of people with the most knockdown argument – numbers. My speech will be full of numbers, as that of any successful accountant, who is concise and respectful person in glasses and in the expensive suit in front of the computer in comfortable office.
References used:
1. http://www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/old/15499675.htm
2. http://www.lums.lancs.ac.uk/Departments/Accounting/undergraduate/accountcareer/
3. http://www.financial-jobs.com/finance/accountant.cfm
4. http://www.orcpa.org/acct_career.html
5. www.cheathouse.com/essay/essay_view.php?p_essay_id=72710 - 21k
6. Blumstein Philip, Carssow W., Groves Kathryn, The Honoring of Accounts. NY: Sociologist, 2001.
7. Rest F., Choosing the profession. Cambridge University Press. 1999.
“The image of accountants as dull, middle-aged men dressed in grey suits is fast disappearing. The accounting profession is associated with high salaries and a bewildering array of career opportunities including traditional auditing and assurance work, management consulting, corporate finance, IT consulting, tax planning, human resources (HR) and insolvency. In addition, the leaders of many top companies are qualified accountants.”(2)
Most accountants work in a typical office setting. Self-employed accountants may be able to do part of their work at home. Accountants and auditors employed by public accounting firms and government agencies may travel frequently to perform audits at clients’ places of business, branches of their firm, or government facilities. Most accountants and auditors generally work a standard 40-hour week, but many work longer hours, particularly if they are self-employed and have numerous clients. Tax specialists often work long hours during the tax season. They promise that the changing role of accountants will spur job growth. In response to market demand, these professionals will offer more management and consulting services as they take on a greater advisory role and develop more sophisticated and flexible accounting systems. By focusing more on analysing operations rather than just providing financial data, accountants will help to increase the demand for their services. “An increasingly important area of accounting and auditing is internal auditing. Internal auditors verify the accuracy of their organization’s records and check for mismanagement, waste, or fraud. Specifically, they examine and evaluate their firms’ financial and information systems, management procedures, and internal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are adequate to protect against fraud and waste. They also review company operations—evaluating their efficiency, effectiveness, and compliance with corporate policies and procedures, laws, and government regulations”.(3) There are many types of highly specialized auditors, such as electronic data processing, environment, development, legal, premium insurance, bank, and public health auditor services. As the systems of the computer make the information, more duly, internal auditors help the managers to base their decisions concerning the fact sheet, faster than personal supervision. The auditor can also recommend a control facility for system of the computer of their organization to guarantee reliability of system and integrity of the data.
The computers quickly change character of work for the majority of the accounts and auditors. Through the special software packages, the accounter is summarized with the bargains in standard formats for the financial records and organize the data in special formats for the financial analysis. These packages of accounting reduce very much the quantity of tiresome manual work connected to the data and storage of the record. Personal and laptop computers allow the bookkeepers and auditors to be more mobile and to use systems of the computer of their clients to take the information from the large computers of the universal computer. As a result of these tendencies growing number of the accountants and auditors has extensive skills of the computer and specializes in correction of problems with the software or development of the software to meet unique data requirements. (Blumstein, 71).
“However, this trend will be counteracted somewhat by a decrease in the demand for traditional services and growing use of accounting software. Accountants will spend less time performing audits due to potential liability and relatively low profits, and will shift away from tax preparation due to the increasing popularity of tax preparation firms. As computer programs continue simplifying some accounting-related tasks, clerical staff will increasingly handle many routine calculations.”(3)
Proficiency in accounting and auditing computer software, or expertise in specialized areas such as international business, specific industries, or current legislation, may also be helpful in landing certain accounting and auditing jobs. In addition, employers increasingly seek applicants with strong interpersonal and communication skills. Regardless of one’s qualifications, however, competition will remain keen for the most prestigious jobs in major accounting and business firms.
Do you ever think where the accountant may work? There is a world of possibility for an accountant. They work in business, sports, the arts, government, education, the non-profit sector - the choice is really great! Accounting opens doors in every kind of business coast to coast. You could work for a large, international accounting firm or a small, local accounting firm, a corporation or small business, a government agency or non-profit organization, or a college or university. Accounting is also an excellent foundation for starting your own practice or company. Others for whom training in accounting is invaluable include appraisers, budget officers, loan officers, financial analysts and managers, bank officers, actuaries, underwriters, tax collectors and revenue agents, FBI special agents, securities sales representatives, and purchasing agents.
“If you work for an accounting firm, as an accountant you may deal with clients in a wide range of industries. For example, you could be assigned to a client in the music industry, examining the company’s financial records, providing tax advice or developing a computer system to track the sale of CDs.
If you work directly for a company, you could be involved in everything from advising on how to increase profits to analysing future financing needs. If you work in government you might find yourself testifying on the impact of pending tax legislation. You can even use your accounting expertise to instruct students or conduct research.”(4)
Accounting demands a various number of skills, aptitudes, and technologies. You should have excellent oral and written communication skills, strong problem-solving abilities, and technical know-how. Once you may be preparing a financial report on the computer; the next you may be presenting your findings on video.
As for the skills an accountant must have it is at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting, or a bachelor’s degree in another subject with a master’s degree in accounting. In addition to accounting and business courses, one should take classes in communications, the humanities, the sciences, economics, and computer applications. So it seems really promising. Although applicants with a master’s degree in accounting, or a master’s degree in business administration with a concentration in accounting, usually have an advantage in the job market.
Another fortune in this profession is that an accountant doesn’t work with the words, language and that long process of persuading people. Accountants and auditors design internal control systems and analyse financial data. It is nearly impossible to overstate the benefits of being able to write well. It is even more important to be able to write well than to speak well, at least until you reach very senior levels of an organization or are interacting regularly with the public directly as a representative of a company. Written communication has a central role in the success of an organization and the ability to express yourself only adequately is simply not, well, adequate. And if you cannot communicate well in writing you’re going to have a very tough time making a successful career from your first job. Even if this handicap doesn’t inhibit you in an entry-level position, you will run into a wall on your first promotion. The importance of effective writing in the workplace cannot be over-emphasized. “Clear communication not only frees the employee to perform their tasks efficiently, it bolsters self-confidence and enhances the creative process in the entire staff. People know they are starting on solid ground and have confidence that their efforts will not be wasted or unappreciated. Clear communication shows respect for entire staff and enables excellence in business.”(5) My future career doesn’t require writing at all. I will write often of course, but this will be numbers, not letters and words, so this is a technical writing. An accountant usually calculates, so the documents I will write are just forms for filling.
Especially pleasant for me was to get to know that employment of accountants is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2008. In addition to openings resulting from growth, the need to replace accountants and auditors who retire or transfer to other occupations will produce thousands of job openings annually in this large occupation. (Rest, 46) As the economy grows, the number of business establishments will increase, requiring more accountants and auditors to set up books, prepare taxes, and provide management advice. As these businesses grow, the volume and complexity of information developed by accountants and auditors regarding costs, expenditures, and taxes will increase as well. More complex requirements for accountants and auditors also arise from changes in legislation related to taxes, financial reporting standards, business investments, mergers, and other financial matters. In addition, businesses will increasingly need quick, accurate, and individually tailored financial information due to the demands of growing international competition. These trends will positively affect the employment of accountants and auditors.
So the only language I will require, analysing data/information/statistics is numbers mixed with formal English phrases. For sure I will persuade a lot of people with the most knockdown argument – numbers. My speech will be full of numbers, as that of any successful accountant, who is concise and respectful person in glasses and in the expensive suit in front of the computer in comfortable office.
References used:
1. http://www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/old/15499675.htm
2. http://www.lums.lancs.ac.uk/Departments/Accounting/undergraduate/accountcareer/
3. http://www.financial-jobs.com/finance/accountant.cfm
4. http://www.orcpa.org/acct_career.html
5. www.cheathouse.com/essay/essay_view.php?p_essay_id=72710 - 21k
6. Blumstein Philip, Carssow W., Groves Kathryn, The Honoring of Accounts. NY: Sociologist, 2001.
7. Rest F., Choosing the profession. Cambridge University Press. 1999.
Sunday, November 25, 2007
Where does a firm's responsibility for its product end?
“When I hear businessmen speak eloquently about the "social responsibilities of business in a free-enterprise system," I am reminded of the wonderful line about the Frenchman who discovered at the age of 70 that he had been speaking prose all his life.”
M. Friedman
Much has been said and written about the ethical and social responsibility of the business community in general and the corporate leaders in particular. Most recently we have witnessed a number of corporations demonstrating genuine gestures of social responsibility by extending huge financial assistance to the destitute and the poor as well as to the educational institutions. Such philanthropic acts are highly commendable and will perpetually remain in the minds of the recipients and the public.
In general Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a concept that suggests that commercial corporations have a duty of care to all of their stakeholders in all aspects of their business operations.
A widely quoted definition by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development states that "Corporate social responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large." (CSR: Meeting Changing Expectations, 1999). This holistic approach to business regards organizations as (for example) being full partners in their communities, rather than seeing them more narrowly as being primarily in business to make profits and serve the needs of their shareholders.
The corporate sector brings goods and services of all types within society's reach. It also contributes substantially to the country's income and wealth and parts some portion to the government in the form of taxes. It generates a major proportion of the nation's employment and provides an important impetus to the growth and expansion of the economy apart from drawing in foreign investments and the much needed foreign exchange. It does play a significant role in determining the quality of life arising out of the impacts of the by-products of its legitimate activities on society and on the physical and social environment.
CSR is closely linked with the principles of Sustainable Development which argue that enterprises should be obliged to make decisions based not only on financial/economic factors (e.g. Profits, Return on Investment, dividend payments etc.) but also on the social, environmental and other consequences of their activities.
Thus Corporate Social Responsibility has become an important part of any company's life. Corporations must give back to the society from which it draws its existence. More and more, the value of a corporation is determined not only by its "bottom line" but by its contribution to the society and country that it serves.
According to Milton Friedman, “The businessmen believe that they are defending free enterprise when they declaim that business is not concerned "merely" with profit but also with promoting desirable "social" ends; that business has a "social conscience" and takes seriously its responsibilities for providing employment, eliminating discrimination, avoiding pollution and whatever else may be the catchwords of the contemporary crop of reformers” (26). From a business perspective, working under government contracts can be a very lucrative proposition. In general, a stream of orders keep coming in, revenue increases and the company grows in the aggregate. The obvious downfalls to working in this manner are both higher quality expected as well as the extensive research and documentation required for government contracts. If a part fails to perform correctly it can cause minor glitches as well as problems that can carry serious repercussions, such as in the National Semiconductor case. This case is a good example of how strong the ethics and corporate responsibility affect the company’s life and its future in general. When things went wrong in an ethical aspect it became quite clear that the production aspect is going to change greatly. When both the culpable component and company are found, the question arises of how extensive these repercussions should be. Is the company as an entity liable or do you look into individual employees within that company? From an ethical perspective one would have to look at the mitigating factors of both the employees and their superiors along with the role of others in the failure of these components. Next you would have to analyze the final ruling from a corporate perspective and then we must examine the macro issue of corporate responsibility in order to attempt to find a resolution for cases like these. This is the mechanism of a corporate responsibility involvement into a production process.
The first mitigating factor involved in the National Semiconductor case is the uncertainty, on the part of the employees, on the duties that they were assigned. It is plausible that during the testing procedure, an employee couldn’t distinguish which parts they were to test under government standards and commercial standards. In some cases they might have even been misinformed on the final consumers of the products that they tested. In fact, ignorance on the part of the employees would fully excuse them from any moral responsibility for any damage that may result from their work. Whether it is decided that an employee is fully excused, or is given some moral responsibility, would have to be looked at on an individual basis. But this is not the only factor connected with the personnel.
The second mitigating factor is the duress or threats that an employee might suffer if they do not follow through with their assignment. After the bogus testing was completed in the National Semiconductor labs, the documentation department also had to falsify documents stating that the parts had surpassed the governmental testing standards. From a legal and ethical standpoint, both the testers and the writers of the reports were merely acting as agents on direct orders from a superior. This was also the case when the plant in Singapore refused to falsify the documents and they were later falsified by the employees at the have California plant before being submitted to the approval committees (Velazquez 53). The writers of the reports were well aware of the situation yet they acted in this manner on the instruction of a supervisor. Acting in an ethical manner becomes a secondary priority in this type of environment. As stated by Alan Reder, . . . if they [the employees] feel they will suffer retribution, if they report a problem, they aren’t too likely to open their mouths. (113). The workers knew that if the reports were not falsified they would come under questioning and perhaps their employment would go into jeopardy. Although working under these conditions does not fully excuse employees from moral fault, it does start the divulging process for determining the order of the chain of command of superiors and it helps to narrow down the person or department that issued the original request for the unethical acts.
The third mitigating factor is one that perhaps encompasses the majority of the employees in the National Semiconductor case. We have to balance the direct involvement that each employee had with the defective parts. Thus, it has to be made clear that many of the employees did not have a direct duty with the testing departments or with the parts that eventually failed. Even employees, or sub-contractors, that were directly involved with the production were not aware of the incompetence on the part of the testing department. For example, the electrical engineer that designed the defective computer chip could act in good faith that it would be tested to ensure that it did indeed meet the required government endurance tests. Also, for the employees that handled the part after the testing process, they were dealing with what they believed to be a component that met every governmental standard. If it was not tested properly, and did eventually fail, isn’t the testing department more morally responsible than the designer or the assembly line worker that was in charge of installing the chip? Plus, in large corporations there may be several testing departments and is some cases one may be held more responsible than another depending on their involvement. A process like this can serve the dual purpose of finding irresponsible employees as well as those that are morally excused.
The fourth mitigating factor in cases of this nature is the gauging of the seriousness of the fault or error caused by this product. Since National Semiconductor was repeatedly being reinstated to the listed of approved government contractors, one can safely assume that the level of seriousness, in the opinion of the contractor approval committees, is not of monumental importance. Yet one has to wonder how this case would have been different if the lack of testing did cause the loss of life in either a domestic or foreign military setting. Perhaps the repercussions would have come faster much more stringent. The fact that National Semiconductor did not cause a death does not make them a safe company. They are still to be held responsible for any errors that their products cause, no matter the magnitude. So these are the four factors that caused some extent of a failure for the company in a National Semiconductor case.
As for the opposition to the delegating of moral responsibility, mitigating factors and excusing factors, they would argue that the entity of the corporation as a whole should be held responsible. The executives within a corporation should not be forced to bring out all of the employees responsible into a public forum. A company should be reprimanded and be left alone to carry out its own internal investigation and repercussions. From a business law perspective this is the ideal case since a corporation is defined as being a separate legal entity. Furthermore, the opposition would argue that this resolution would benefit both the company and the government since it would not inconvenience either party. The original resolution in the National Semiconductor case was along these lines. The government permanently removed National from its approved contractors list and then National set out to untangle the web of culpability within its own confines. This allowed a relatively quick resolution as well as the ideal scenario for National Semiconductor.
In response, one could argue that the entity of a corporation has no morals or even a concept of the word; it is only as moral and ethical as the employees that work in that entity. All of the employees, including top ranking executives are working towards advancing the entity known as their corporation (Capitman 117). All employees, including the sub-contractors and assembly line workers, are in some part morally responsible because they should have been clear on their employment duties and they all should have been aware of which parts were intended for government use. Ambiguity is not an excusing factor of moral responsibility for the workers. Also, the fact that some employees failed to act in an ethical manner gives even more moral responsibility to that employee. While some are definitely more morally responsible than others, every employee has some burden of weight in this case. In fact, when the government reached a final resolution, they decided to further impose repercussions and certain employees of National Semiconductor were banned from future work in any government office (Velazquez 54). A typical and good result of an inadequate corporate social responsibility policy.
Looking at the case from the standpoint of National Semiconductor, the outcome was favorable considering the alternate steps that the government could take. As explained before, it is ideal for a company to be able to conduct its own investigation as well as its own punishments. After all, it would be best for a company to determine what specific departments are responsible rather than having a court of law impose a burden on every employee in its corporation. Yet, since there are ethical issues of dishonesty and secrecy involved, National Semiconductor should have conducted a thorough analysis of their employees as well as their own practices. It is through efforts like these that a corporation can raise the ethical standard of everyone in their organization.
This case brings into light the whole issue of corporate responsibility. The two sides that must ultimately be balanced are the self interests of the company, with main goal of maximum profit, and the impacts that a corporation can cause on society (Sawyer 78). To further strengthen this need, one could argue that there are very few business decisions that do not affect society in way or another. In fact, with the plethora of corporations, society is being affected on various fronts; everything from water contamination to air bag safety is a concern. The biggest problem that all of us must contend with is that every decision that a business makes is gauged by the financial responsibility to their corporation instead of their social responsibility to the local community, and in some cases, the international community. This was pointed out on various occasions as the main reason why National Semiconductor falsified their reports. The cost that the full tests would incur did not outweigh their profit margins. Their business sense leads them to do what all companies want . . . maximum profit. In the opinion of the executives, they were acting in a sensible manner. After all, no executive wants to think of themselves as morally irresponsible. (Capitman 118).
What does it mean to say that the corporate executive has a "social responsibility" in his capacity as businessman? If this statement is not pure rhetoric, it must mean that he is to act in some way that is not in the interest of his employers. For example, that he is to refrain from increasing the price of the product in order to contribute to the social objective of preventing inflation, even though a price in crease would be in the best interests of the corporation. Or that he is “to make expenditures on reducing pollution beyond the amount that is in the best interests of the corporation or that is required by law in order to contribute to the social objective of improving the environment. Or that, at the expense of corporate profits, he is to hire "hardcore" unemployed instead of better qualified available workmen to contribute to the social objective of reducing poverty” (Friedman 24). Social responsibility for the executive is a greatly controversial issue.
The question that naturally arises, in debating corporate responsibility, is what types of checks and balances can be employed within a company to ensure that a corporation and all of its agents act in an ethical manner. Taking the example of the National Semiconductor case, one can notice many failures in moral responsibility. National Semiconductor would have to review its employees, particularly the supervisors, for basic ethical values such as honesty. Example, ultimately it was the widespread falsification of the testing documentation that caused the downfall of National Semiconductor, not the integrity of their components. In the synopsis of the case it is never mentioned that the employees initiated this idea, it would seem that it was the supervisors that gave the order to falsify the documents. In order to accomplish this, the company executives would have to encourage their employees to voice their concerns in regards to the advancement of the company. Through open communication, a company can resolve a variety of its ethical dilemmas. As for the financial aspects of the corporation, it has to decide whether the long term effects that a reprimand from the government can have outweighs their bottom line. In other words, corporations have to start moving away from the thought of instant profit and start realizing both the long term effects and benefits. These long term benefits can include a stronger sense of ethics in the work force as well as a better overall society.
Each company cannot count on "winning" to provide its ethical foundations. Each employee cannot count on "winning" to justify proper ethical behavior. It is in times of stress and worry that the foundations of ethics are so important; in these times the temptation to cut corners is greatest. Ethics should not be an appendage of success; it should part and parcel of every company and every employee, regardless of their relative market position. A successful company is naturally a better corporate citizen and employs better citizens.
To conclude the case analysis, I must say that I agree with the use of mitigating factors in determining moral responsibility. A company, as defined by law, is only a name on a piece of paper. The company acts and conducts itself according to the employees that work in that entity. I use the word employee because in ethical thinking there should be no distinction of rank within a company. There are times when executives can be held directly responsible and at the same time, there are cases where employees are acting unethically without the executives knowing. Neither title of executive or employee equates to moral perfection. Therefore, when a company has acted irresponsibly, its employees must be held liable in a proportionate amount. As for the future of ethics in business I would speculate that if employees started to think more in long term benefits and profits, many of the ethical dilemmas that we face today would be greatly reduced. As mentioned before, businesses today uses the measuring stick of profitability. There needs to be a shift to the thinking of total utility for the social community in order to weigh business decisions.
Opponents would argue that this is a long term plan that requires too many radical changes in the face of business. Also, there is no way that an industry wide standard can be set since there are too many types of corporations. Plus, companies have different needs and every moral rule is subjective according to the type of business that everyone conducts.
In response, I would argue that although there are no industry standards that are feasible, it is possible for every company to examine their practices as well as the attitude of their employees. There will be companies that find that they are doing fine with employees that are aware of their moral values. Yet other companies will find that they do have areas that need improvement. It is steps like these that start implementing changes. Once a few companies start to see the benefits of changes, it can help to encourage other companies to follow suit. After all, as seen in the case of National Semiconductor, mistakes in one department can cause the deterioration of an entire corporation. When the costs that are possible are taken into account, the changes required to rectify this are small in comparison.
It is important to distinguish CSR from charitable donations and "good works" (i.e., philanthropy, e.g., Habitat for Humanity or Ronald McDonald House). Corporations have often, in the past, spent money on community projects, the endowment of scholarships, and the establishment of foundations. They have also often encouraged their employees to volunteer to take part in community work and thereby create goodwill in the community which will directly enhance the reputation of the company and strengthen its brand. CSR goes beyond charity and requires that a responsible company take into full account their impact on all stakeholders and on the environment when making decisions. This requires them to balance the needs of all stakeholders with their need to make a profit and reward their shareholders adequately.
Bibliography
1. Barry, Norman, Anglo-American Capitalism and the Ethics of Business, Wellington, New Zealand: Business Roundtable, 1999.
2. Bentham, Jeremy, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, 1789; 1823.
3. Capitman, William. 1973. Panic In the Boardroom. New York: Anchor Press-DoubleDay Publishing.
4. Cheung, Steven N. S., “The Contractual Nature of the Firm”, Journal of Law & Economics, XXVI (1983), p. 3.
5. Fama, Eugene F., “Agency Problems and the Theory of the Firm”, Journal of Political Economy LXXXVIII, p. 2.
6. Friedman, Milton, “The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits”, New York Times Magazine, 13 September 1970.
7. Friedman, Milton, Capitalism and Freedom, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962, p. 133.
8. Grinyer, John R., Sinclair, C. Donald, and Ibrahim, Daing Nasir, “Management Objectives in Capital Budgeting”, Financial Practice and Education, IX, 2 (1999), p. 12.
9. Harris, Kathryn, Chips Maker Feels Attack on Four Sides. Los Angeles Times. April 4, 1982. Pg. B1.
10. Pava, Moses. 1995. Corporate Responsibility and Financial Performance. London Quorum Books.
11. Primeaux, Patrick and Stieber, John, “Profit Maximization: The Ethical Mandate of Business”, Journal of Business Ethics, XIII (1994), pp. 287-94.
12. Reder, Alan. 1944. In Pursuit of Principle and Profit. New York: G.P. Putnams Sons Publishing.
M. Friedman
Much has been said and written about the ethical and social responsibility of the business community in general and the corporate leaders in particular. Most recently we have witnessed a number of corporations demonstrating genuine gestures of social responsibility by extending huge financial assistance to the destitute and the poor as well as to the educational institutions. Such philanthropic acts are highly commendable and will perpetually remain in the minds of the recipients and the public.
In general Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a concept that suggests that commercial corporations have a duty of care to all of their stakeholders in all aspects of their business operations.
A widely quoted definition by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development states that "Corporate social responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large." (CSR: Meeting Changing Expectations, 1999). This holistic approach to business regards organizations as (for example) being full partners in their communities, rather than seeing them more narrowly as being primarily in business to make profits and serve the needs of their shareholders.
The corporate sector brings goods and services of all types within society's reach. It also contributes substantially to the country's income and wealth and parts some portion to the government in the form of taxes. It generates a major proportion of the nation's employment and provides an important impetus to the growth and expansion of the economy apart from drawing in foreign investments and the much needed foreign exchange. It does play a significant role in determining the quality of life arising out of the impacts of the by-products of its legitimate activities on society and on the physical and social environment.
CSR is closely linked with the principles of Sustainable Development which argue that enterprises should be obliged to make decisions based not only on financial/economic factors (e.g. Profits, Return on Investment, dividend payments etc.) but also on the social, environmental and other consequences of their activities.
Thus Corporate Social Responsibility has become an important part of any company's life. Corporations must give back to the society from which it draws its existence. More and more, the value of a corporation is determined not only by its "bottom line" but by its contribution to the society and country that it serves.
According to Milton Friedman, “The businessmen believe that they are defending free enterprise when they declaim that business is not concerned "merely" with profit but also with promoting desirable "social" ends; that business has a "social conscience" and takes seriously its responsibilities for providing employment, eliminating discrimination, avoiding pollution and whatever else may be the catchwords of the contemporary crop of reformers” (26). From a business perspective, working under government contracts can be a very lucrative proposition. In general, a stream of orders keep coming in, revenue increases and the company grows in the aggregate. The obvious downfalls to working in this manner are both higher quality expected as well as the extensive research and documentation required for government contracts. If a part fails to perform correctly it can cause minor glitches as well as problems that can carry serious repercussions, such as in the National Semiconductor case. This case is a good example of how strong the ethics and corporate responsibility affect the company’s life and its future in general. When things went wrong in an ethical aspect it became quite clear that the production aspect is going to change greatly. When both the culpable component and company are found, the question arises of how extensive these repercussions should be. Is the company as an entity liable or do you look into individual employees within that company? From an ethical perspective one would have to look at the mitigating factors of both the employees and their superiors along with the role of others in the failure of these components. Next you would have to analyze the final ruling from a corporate perspective and then we must examine the macro issue of corporate responsibility in order to attempt to find a resolution for cases like these. This is the mechanism of a corporate responsibility involvement into a production process.
The first mitigating factor involved in the National Semiconductor case is the uncertainty, on the part of the employees, on the duties that they were assigned. It is plausible that during the testing procedure, an employee couldn’t distinguish which parts they were to test under government standards and commercial standards. In some cases they might have even been misinformed on the final consumers of the products that they tested. In fact, ignorance on the part of the employees would fully excuse them from any moral responsibility for any damage that may result from their work. Whether it is decided that an employee is fully excused, or is given some moral responsibility, would have to be looked at on an individual basis. But this is not the only factor connected with the personnel.
The second mitigating factor is the duress or threats that an employee might suffer if they do not follow through with their assignment. After the bogus testing was completed in the National Semiconductor labs, the documentation department also had to falsify documents stating that the parts had surpassed the governmental testing standards. From a legal and ethical standpoint, both the testers and the writers of the reports were merely acting as agents on direct orders from a superior. This was also the case when the plant in Singapore refused to falsify the documents and they were later falsified by the employees at the have California plant before being submitted to the approval committees (Velazquez 53). The writers of the reports were well aware of the situation yet they acted in this manner on the instruction of a supervisor. Acting in an ethical manner becomes a secondary priority in this type of environment. As stated by Alan Reder, . . . if they [the employees] feel they will suffer retribution, if they report a problem, they aren’t too likely to open their mouths. (113). The workers knew that if the reports were not falsified they would come under questioning and perhaps their employment would go into jeopardy. Although working under these conditions does not fully excuse employees from moral fault, it does start the divulging process for determining the order of the chain of command of superiors and it helps to narrow down the person or department that issued the original request for the unethical acts.
The third mitigating factor is one that perhaps encompasses the majority of the employees in the National Semiconductor case. We have to balance the direct involvement that each employee had with the defective parts. Thus, it has to be made clear that many of the employees did not have a direct duty with the testing departments or with the parts that eventually failed. Even employees, or sub-contractors, that were directly involved with the production were not aware of the incompetence on the part of the testing department. For example, the electrical engineer that designed the defective computer chip could act in good faith that it would be tested to ensure that it did indeed meet the required government endurance tests. Also, for the employees that handled the part after the testing process, they were dealing with what they believed to be a component that met every governmental standard. If it was not tested properly, and did eventually fail, isn’t the testing department more morally responsible than the designer or the assembly line worker that was in charge of installing the chip? Plus, in large corporations there may be several testing departments and is some cases one may be held more responsible than another depending on their involvement. A process like this can serve the dual purpose of finding irresponsible employees as well as those that are morally excused.
The fourth mitigating factor in cases of this nature is the gauging of the seriousness of the fault or error caused by this product. Since National Semiconductor was repeatedly being reinstated to the listed of approved government contractors, one can safely assume that the level of seriousness, in the opinion of the contractor approval committees, is not of monumental importance. Yet one has to wonder how this case would have been different if the lack of testing did cause the loss of life in either a domestic or foreign military setting. Perhaps the repercussions would have come faster much more stringent. The fact that National Semiconductor did not cause a death does not make them a safe company. They are still to be held responsible for any errors that their products cause, no matter the magnitude. So these are the four factors that caused some extent of a failure for the company in a National Semiconductor case.
As for the opposition to the delegating of moral responsibility, mitigating factors and excusing factors, they would argue that the entity of the corporation as a whole should be held responsible. The executives within a corporation should not be forced to bring out all of the employees responsible into a public forum. A company should be reprimanded and be left alone to carry out its own internal investigation and repercussions. From a business law perspective this is the ideal case since a corporation is defined as being a separate legal entity. Furthermore, the opposition would argue that this resolution would benefit both the company and the government since it would not inconvenience either party. The original resolution in the National Semiconductor case was along these lines. The government permanently removed National from its approved contractors list and then National set out to untangle the web of culpability within its own confines. This allowed a relatively quick resolution as well as the ideal scenario for National Semiconductor.
In response, one could argue that the entity of a corporation has no morals or even a concept of the word; it is only as moral and ethical as the employees that work in that entity. All of the employees, including top ranking executives are working towards advancing the entity known as their corporation (Capitman 117). All employees, including the sub-contractors and assembly line workers, are in some part morally responsible because they should have been clear on their employment duties and they all should have been aware of which parts were intended for government use. Ambiguity is not an excusing factor of moral responsibility for the workers. Also, the fact that some employees failed to act in an ethical manner gives even more moral responsibility to that employee. While some are definitely more morally responsible than others, every employee has some burden of weight in this case. In fact, when the government reached a final resolution, they decided to further impose repercussions and certain employees of National Semiconductor were banned from future work in any government office (Velazquez 54). A typical and good result of an inadequate corporate social responsibility policy.
Looking at the case from the standpoint of National Semiconductor, the outcome was favorable considering the alternate steps that the government could take. As explained before, it is ideal for a company to be able to conduct its own investigation as well as its own punishments. After all, it would be best for a company to determine what specific departments are responsible rather than having a court of law impose a burden on every employee in its corporation. Yet, since there are ethical issues of dishonesty and secrecy involved, National Semiconductor should have conducted a thorough analysis of their employees as well as their own practices. It is through efforts like these that a corporation can raise the ethical standard of everyone in their organization.
This case brings into light the whole issue of corporate responsibility. The two sides that must ultimately be balanced are the self interests of the company, with main goal of maximum profit, and the impacts that a corporation can cause on society (Sawyer 78). To further strengthen this need, one could argue that there are very few business decisions that do not affect society in way or another. In fact, with the plethora of corporations, society is being affected on various fronts; everything from water contamination to air bag safety is a concern. The biggest problem that all of us must contend with is that every decision that a business makes is gauged by the financial responsibility to their corporation instead of their social responsibility to the local community, and in some cases, the international community. This was pointed out on various occasions as the main reason why National Semiconductor falsified their reports. The cost that the full tests would incur did not outweigh their profit margins. Their business sense leads them to do what all companies want . . . maximum profit. In the opinion of the executives, they were acting in a sensible manner. After all, no executive wants to think of themselves as morally irresponsible. (Capitman 118).
What does it mean to say that the corporate executive has a "social responsibility" in his capacity as businessman? If this statement is not pure rhetoric, it must mean that he is to act in some way that is not in the interest of his employers. For example, that he is to refrain from increasing the price of the product in order to contribute to the social objective of preventing inflation, even though a price in crease would be in the best interests of the corporation. Or that he is “to make expenditures on reducing pollution beyond the amount that is in the best interests of the corporation or that is required by law in order to contribute to the social objective of improving the environment. Or that, at the expense of corporate profits, he is to hire "hardcore" unemployed instead of better qualified available workmen to contribute to the social objective of reducing poverty” (Friedman 24). Social responsibility for the executive is a greatly controversial issue.
The question that naturally arises, in debating corporate responsibility, is what types of checks and balances can be employed within a company to ensure that a corporation and all of its agents act in an ethical manner. Taking the example of the National Semiconductor case, one can notice many failures in moral responsibility. National Semiconductor would have to review its employees, particularly the supervisors, for basic ethical values such as honesty. Example, ultimately it was the widespread falsification of the testing documentation that caused the downfall of National Semiconductor, not the integrity of their components. In the synopsis of the case it is never mentioned that the employees initiated this idea, it would seem that it was the supervisors that gave the order to falsify the documents. In order to accomplish this, the company executives would have to encourage their employees to voice their concerns in regards to the advancement of the company. Through open communication, a company can resolve a variety of its ethical dilemmas. As for the financial aspects of the corporation, it has to decide whether the long term effects that a reprimand from the government can have outweighs their bottom line. In other words, corporations have to start moving away from the thought of instant profit and start realizing both the long term effects and benefits. These long term benefits can include a stronger sense of ethics in the work force as well as a better overall society.
Each company cannot count on "winning" to provide its ethical foundations. Each employee cannot count on "winning" to justify proper ethical behavior. It is in times of stress and worry that the foundations of ethics are so important; in these times the temptation to cut corners is greatest. Ethics should not be an appendage of success; it should part and parcel of every company and every employee, regardless of their relative market position. A successful company is naturally a better corporate citizen and employs better citizens.
To conclude the case analysis, I must say that I agree with the use of mitigating factors in determining moral responsibility. A company, as defined by law, is only a name on a piece of paper. The company acts and conducts itself according to the employees that work in that entity. I use the word employee because in ethical thinking there should be no distinction of rank within a company. There are times when executives can be held directly responsible and at the same time, there are cases where employees are acting unethically without the executives knowing. Neither title of executive or employee equates to moral perfection. Therefore, when a company has acted irresponsibly, its employees must be held liable in a proportionate amount. As for the future of ethics in business I would speculate that if employees started to think more in long term benefits and profits, many of the ethical dilemmas that we face today would be greatly reduced. As mentioned before, businesses today uses the measuring stick of profitability. There needs to be a shift to the thinking of total utility for the social community in order to weigh business decisions.
Opponents would argue that this is a long term plan that requires too many radical changes in the face of business. Also, there is no way that an industry wide standard can be set since there are too many types of corporations. Plus, companies have different needs and every moral rule is subjective according to the type of business that everyone conducts.
In response, I would argue that although there are no industry standards that are feasible, it is possible for every company to examine their practices as well as the attitude of their employees. There will be companies that find that they are doing fine with employees that are aware of their moral values. Yet other companies will find that they do have areas that need improvement. It is steps like these that start implementing changes. Once a few companies start to see the benefits of changes, it can help to encourage other companies to follow suit. After all, as seen in the case of National Semiconductor, mistakes in one department can cause the deterioration of an entire corporation. When the costs that are possible are taken into account, the changes required to rectify this are small in comparison.
It is important to distinguish CSR from charitable donations and "good works" (i.e., philanthropy, e.g., Habitat for Humanity or Ronald McDonald House). Corporations have often, in the past, spent money on community projects, the endowment of scholarships, and the establishment of foundations. They have also often encouraged their employees to volunteer to take part in community work and thereby create goodwill in the community which will directly enhance the reputation of the company and strengthen its brand. CSR goes beyond charity and requires that a responsible company take into full account their impact on all stakeholders and on the environment when making decisions. This requires them to balance the needs of all stakeholders with their need to make a profit and reward their shareholders adequately.
Bibliography
1. Barry, Norman, Anglo-American Capitalism and the Ethics of Business, Wellington, New Zealand: Business Roundtable, 1999.
2. Bentham, Jeremy, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, 1789; 1823.
3. Capitman, William. 1973. Panic In the Boardroom. New York: Anchor Press-DoubleDay Publishing.
4. Cheung, Steven N. S., “The Contractual Nature of the Firm”, Journal of Law & Economics, XXVI (1983), p. 3.
5. Fama, Eugene F., “Agency Problems and the Theory of the Firm”, Journal of Political Economy LXXXVIII, p. 2.
6. Friedman, Milton, “The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits”, New York Times Magazine, 13 September 1970.
7. Friedman, Milton, Capitalism and Freedom, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962, p. 133.
8. Grinyer, John R., Sinclair, C. Donald, and Ibrahim, Daing Nasir, “Management Objectives in Capital Budgeting”, Financial Practice and Education, IX, 2 (1999), p. 12.
9. Harris, Kathryn, Chips Maker Feels Attack on Four Sides. Los Angeles Times. April 4, 1982. Pg. B1.
10. Pava, Moses. 1995. Corporate Responsibility and Financial Performance. London Quorum Books.
11. Primeaux, Patrick and Stieber, John, “Profit Maximization: The Ethical Mandate of Business”, Journal of Business Ethics, XIII (1994), pp. 287-94.
12. Reder, Alan. 1944. In Pursuit of Principle and Profit. New York: G.P. Putnams Sons Publishing.
Friday, November 23, 2007
American Film History 1960-1990
‘There might not have been a more awkward period in Hollywood history than the’60s. Social, political and economic forces way beyond the control of studio executives conspired to turn time-honored conventions and archetypes on their head, and the movies evidenced all the topicality of a Civil War re-enactment. There was a time in Hollywood history when the dollars of teenagers were considered less valuable than those of their parents and grandparents.
Blame it on the bossa nova or old habits dying hard, but, no question, the industry was in no hurry to bust headlong into the future. The Production Code may have been on its last legs, but the combined forces of the Legion of Decency, conservative lawmakers and regional censorship boards intimidated distributors and kept mainstream American filmmakers in a deep rut.’ (1)
Handcuffed by the timidity of their employers, America’s best and brightest began to lose ground to directors, screenwriters and actors who enjoyed the freedom to tweak time-honored genres and invent characters that may have lived in the real world. Some held their nose and slogged onward, while such mavericks as John Cassavetes and Arthur Penn looked elsewhere for encouragement. That there was an audience for arthouse titles was proven by the box-office success of films by Bergman, Fellini, Kurosawa, Forman, Godard, and Truffaut. This phenomenon wouldn’t last, of course. The newly established MPAA ratings system would provide a cushion between the studios and Congress, and Americans would soon grow weary of reading subtitles. Still, to paraphrase Bob Dylan, somethin’ was happenin’ but no one in Hollywood knew what it was … did they, Mr. Jones?
While Hollywood remained content to churn out Rat Pack (“Robin and the 7 Hoods”) and Elvis Presley quasi-musicals (“Kissin’ Cousins”), American filmgoers were free to salivate over images of Swinging London in such British imports as “Blow-Up,” “Georgy Girl,” “Alfie,” “What’s New Pussycat,” “Morgan!” and “Darling.” Interesting things were happening, as well, in the Haight-Ashbury, East Village, along the Sunset Strip and on campuses from Berkeley to Boston, you wouldn’t know it from the movies.
Outside of the fledgling indie-, underground- and experimental-film movements, the counterculture scene was chronicled in such goofy exploitation pictures as “The Trip,” “Psych-Out,” “The Love-Ins,” “The Wild Angels” and “Riot on Sunset Strip.” It took even longer for Hollywood to catch up with the increasingly louder anti-Vietnam War protesters, and, when it did, they were depicted as spoiled brats, shaggy juvenile delinquents or aging beatniks.
The studios couldn’t have been more out of touch with the youth of America, no matter if they were currently wearing flowers in their hair, jungle fatigues or baggy swimsuits.
Richard Lester returned to America to employ his flash-and-dash pop sensibility on “Petulia.” In it, George C. Scott played a recently divorced doctor who, to his dismay, finds himself being stalked by a beautiful, if extremely kooky and married socialite, portrayed by a significantly Julie Christie. Their awkward courting dance is set against the backdrop of a San Francisco that’s about to be thrown into upheaval by an invasion of hippies and resulting outbreak of psychedelia, and the militancy of civil rights and anti-war activists.
Scott and Christie run in a much more established and wealthy class of the citizenry, but, as today, San Francisco’s relatively cozy confines ensured that people of all backgrounds and persuasions rubbed shoulders with each other on a daily basis. Christie’s Petulia may have been a total nut job, but her zest to escape the straitjacket of conformity eventually cut through the thick crust of a bedraggled man who only “wants to feel something.” Interspersed with the drama and comedy are snippets of concert footage shot by Nicolas Roeg of Big Brother and the Holding Company and the Grateful Dead, members of whom also appear in street scenes.
Lester infused “Petulia” with some of the same visual kineticism and pop sensibility that informed the Beatles films. Moreover, the picture never stooped to ridicule, exploit or overplay the then-burgeoning hippie scene. Like the tourists, seagulls, snooty upper-crusters and the Golden Gate, cameo appearances by Jerry Garcia, Phil Lesh, Ron “Pigpen” McKernan and Janis Joplin – on and off stage – were organically integrated into the narrative. And, it’s wonderful.
In the 1960's in particular, for obvious socio-political reasons, you got a lot of films waxing nostalgic about the ultimate Non-Conformists bucking "The System" in some kind of deeply-meaningful, even existential, principled stand. It's the idea behind much of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, of course, and Easy Rider and many many many other films. (Even The Trip!)
’Richard Lester's 1968 masterpiece Petulia takes the notion a few steps farther. Initially a lightly-entertaining screwball riff about an uptight recent divorcee (George C. Scott) and a kooky young married woman (Julie Christie) who bond over some half-seen, grim circumstances, the movie eventually descends into a cold, vaguely sinister allegory about artificiality and emotional distance. What begins by celebrating the eccentric Outsider archetype becomes a critique on the very notion of a counter-culture. In a world so far gone, so removed from reality and insulated from experience, Lester can't find room for true freedom. It has been innovated out of existence. There's just a ton going on in this film. Lester's compelling, almost unsettling ideas about modernity and the loss of interconnectedness that goes along with it come at a heady clip. In a move reminiscent in some ways of Robert Altman, Lester fills his sonic canvas with background noise and barely-heard conversations.’ (4)
‘And as you'd expect from a Lester film, each scene is filled with smart little asides and dashes of dark humor that really highlight all these ideas and more that I didn't get to describe. Like the indoor greenhouse Archie receives as a gift, with little light bulbs the installation man says work better than the sun. Oh, and I didn't talk about the borrowed shots from Vertigo, also filmed in San Francisco, and how Lester plays with a lot of Hitchcock's favorite themes in a sidelong, more cynical fashion.’(2)
Petulia got many enthusiastic reviews when first released. It also received some skeptical pans, including a big thumbs-down from the influential Pauline Kael, who called it "come-dressed-as-the-sick-soul-of-America-party" and blamed "the mass media" for hyping Lester too much. Seen today, when its style seems downright tame by Quentin Tarantino standards, the movie is an absorbing character study, a colorful time capsule, and a valuable history lesson. Turns out the Sixties weren't so Swinging after all.
The point of this unconventional approach is not just to dazzle the eyes, but to make sure the story's full meaning comes across. Petulia is sliced and diced because its characters' minds and hearts are sliced and diced, and because the shallow, artificial culture they live in has started to break apart in ways that mirror (and maybe cause) their growing incoherence. Lester's style is of a piece with the psychology and sociology he portrays-charmingly unpredictable one moment, decadent and dangerous the next. Petulia is a wake-up call for the '60s, warning that the decade has fallen under the spell of its own shining surfaces, smiley faces, and self-deluding kookiness. No wonder its characters can't get their inner selves together. They've almost forgotten they have inner selves, and that's perilous for American society, since the story's main figures aren't the hippies and dippies who crowd around the edges of some scenes, but members of the "respectable" ruling class whose escalating instability has wide-ranging consequences. "Petulia" tells the story of two very different people whose lives irrevocably intersect in a vague search for place and self in the 1960s. Lester claims to have shaped "Petulia"'s characters as symbols of 1960s America, and yet rarely has the cinema offered such complex and three-dimensional characters. The title character in particular, played by Julie Christie, is a young "kook" recently married into comfortable wealth, and whose behavior is not only unpredictable, but erratic to the point of schizophrenia. George C. Scott's Archie is a rather serious doctor in the midst of a divorce (he terminated his marriage, he says, because he'd tired of being "a handsome couple") and making a rather forced effort to enjoy new bachelorhood. In the opening scene, Petulia tells Archie, "I've been married six months and I've never had an affair." After much discussion, but no kissing, Archie and Petulia decide, almost out of resignation, to have an affair. What these characters take from each other is a very complicated thing, which I can only describe as brief protection from what seems inevitable loneliness. Certainly they're an interesting pair. Über-critic Pauline Kael describes Julie Christie's portrayal of Petulia as "lewd and anxious, expressive and empty, brilliantly faceted but with something central missing, almost as if there's no woman inside." I couldn't say it better myself. George C. Scott's Archie is a brilliantly understated masculine foil to this Petulia. Richard Combs wrote of him in Film Comment as representative of a type "reduced to inertia, impotence, terminal ambivalence by the fact that they see too clearly and feel too keenly the compromises that society demands."
The Swinging Sixties! If you remember them, an old joke goes, you weren't really there. But if you don't remember them, chances are you weren't born yet. Today's younger generations have taken their image of the period largely from movies, including a few by Richard Lester that helped define the scene while the scene was still happening. Petulia, now available on DVD from Warner Home Video, was one of these. So were the Beatles comedies A Hard Day's Night and Help!, released to huge acclaim in 1964 and 1965, and The Knack...and How to Get It, also from 1965. All combine quintessential '60s content with anything-goes editing style that captures the era's unstoppable energy, which Lester-an American who moved to England in his early twenties-knew from both sides of the Atlantic.
Petulia reached theaters in 1968, the year when public fascination with youthful idealism and psychedelia hit its peak, then started its slide into polarized debate over everything from the Vietnam War to the sexual revolution. The gifted George C. Scott plays Archie, a middle-aged San Francisco physician who's getting divorced just because he got "tired of being married." Young and beautiful Julie Christie plays Petulia, a self-described "kook" who comes on to Archie at a charity rock concert, announcing to this total stranger that she's been married all of six months and hasn't had an affair yet. Her husband, played with remarkable subtlety by Richard Chamberlain, is a businessman with a violent streak lurking behind his handsome smile. Important subplots center on Archie's unhappy former wife, his two young children, and a cheeky Mexican boy who brings major complications to Petulia's already complicated life. All this adds up to a sometimes intricate plot, but its main concern is the strange relationship between Archie and Petulia at once a casual fling, a potentially life-changing love affair, and a psychological puzzle too hard for either of them to solve. Petulia calls herself a kook but is far more disturbed than such a breezy word conveys; her husband is an abusive tyrant disguised as a regular guy; and even Archie, the most stable and successful of the group, is on his way to becoming an exhausted has-been whose ambition is simply to "feel something" again before he gets too old to care.
1. www.mcnblogs.com/digitaldretzka/2006/06/not_in_any_hurry_to_see_summer.html
2. www.crushedbyinertia.blogspot.com/2006/06/petulia.html
3. www.tcm.com/movienews/index?cid=136128&rss=mrqe
4. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Lester
5. www.web.mit.edu/ipc/people/director/index.html
Blame it on the bossa nova or old habits dying hard, but, no question, the industry was in no hurry to bust headlong into the future. The Production Code may have been on its last legs, but the combined forces of the Legion of Decency, conservative lawmakers and regional censorship boards intimidated distributors and kept mainstream American filmmakers in a deep rut.’ (1)
Handcuffed by the timidity of their employers, America’s best and brightest began to lose ground to directors, screenwriters and actors who enjoyed the freedom to tweak time-honored genres and invent characters that may have lived in the real world. Some held their nose and slogged onward, while such mavericks as John Cassavetes and Arthur Penn looked elsewhere for encouragement. That there was an audience for arthouse titles was proven by the box-office success of films by Bergman, Fellini, Kurosawa, Forman, Godard, and Truffaut. This phenomenon wouldn’t last, of course. The newly established MPAA ratings system would provide a cushion between the studios and Congress, and Americans would soon grow weary of reading subtitles. Still, to paraphrase Bob Dylan, somethin’ was happenin’ but no one in Hollywood knew what it was … did they, Mr. Jones?
While Hollywood remained content to churn out Rat Pack (“Robin and the 7 Hoods”) and Elvis Presley quasi-musicals (“Kissin’ Cousins”), American filmgoers were free to salivate over images of Swinging London in such British imports as “Blow-Up,” “Georgy Girl,” “Alfie,” “What’s New Pussycat,” “Morgan!” and “Darling.” Interesting things were happening, as well, in the Haight-Ashbury, East Village, along the Sunset Strip and on campuses from Berkeley to Boston, you wouldn’t know it from the movies.
Outside of the fledgling indie-, underground- and experimental-film movements, the counterculture scene was chronicled in such goofy exploitation pictures as “The Trip,” “Psych-Out,” “The Love-Ins,” “The Wild Angels” and “Riot on Sunset Strip.” It took even longer for Hollywood to catch up with the increasingly louder anti-Vietnam War protesters, and, when it did, they were depicted as spoiled brats, shaggy juvenile delinquents or aging beatniks.
The studios couldn’t have been more out of touch with the youth of America, no matter if they were currently wearing flowers in their hair, jungle fatigues or baggy swimsuits.
Richard Lester returned to America to employ his flash-and-dash pop sensibility on “Petulia.” In it, George C. Scott played a recently divorced doctor who, to his dismay, finds himself being stalked by a beautiful, if extremely kooky and married socialite, portrayed by a significantly Julie Christie. Their awkward courting dance is set against the backdrop of a San Francisco that’s about to be thrown into upheaval by an invasion of hippies and resulting outbreak of psychedelia, and the militancy of civil rights and anti-war activists.
Scott and Christie run in a much more established and wealthy class of the citizenry, but, as today, San Francisco’s relatively cozy confines ensured that people of all backgrounds and persuasions rubbed shoulders with each other on a daily basis. Christie’s Petulia may have been a total nut job, but her zest to escape the straitjacket of conformity eventually cut through the thick crust of a bedraggled man who only “wants to feel something.” Interspersed with the drama and comedy are snippets of concert footage shot by Nicolas Roeg of Big Brother and the Holding Company and the Grateful Dead, members of whom also appear in street scenes.
Lester infused “Petulia” with some of the same visual kineticism and pop sensibility that informed the Beatles films. Moreover, the picture never stooped to ridicule, exploit or overplay the then-burgeoning hippie scene. Like the tourists, seagulls, snooty upper-crusters and the Golden Gate, cameo appearances by Jerry Garcia, Phil Lesh, Ron “Pigpen” McKernan and Janis Joplin – on and off stage – were organically integrated into the narrative. And, it’s wonderful.
In the 1960's in particular, for obvious socio-political reasons, you got a lot of films waxing nostalgic about the ultimate Non-Conformists bucking "The System" in some kind of deeply-meaningful, even existential, principled stand. It's the idea behind much of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, of course, and Easy Rider and many many many other films. (Even The Trip!)
’Richard Lester's 1968 masterpiece Petulia takes the notion a few steps farther. Initially a lightly-entertaining screwball riff about an uptight recent divorcee (George C. Scott) and a kooky young married woman (Julie Christie) who bond over some half-seen, grim circumstances, the movie eventually descends into a cold, vaguely sinister allegory about artificiality and emotional distance. What begins by celebrating the eccentric Outsider archetype becomes a critique on the very notion of a counter-culture. In a world so far gone, so removed from reality and insulated from experience, Lester can't find room for true freedom. It has been innovated out of existence. There's just a ton going on in this film. Lester's compelling, almost unsettling ideas about modernity and the loss of interconnectedness that goes along with it come at a heady clip. In a move reminiscent in some ways of Robert Altman, Lester fills his sonic canvas with background noise and barely-heard conversations.’ (4)
‘And as you'd expect from a Lester film, each scene is filled with smart little asides and dashes of dark humor that really highlight all these ideas and more that I didn't get to describe. Like the indoor greenhouse Archie receives as a gift, with little light bulbs the installation man says work better than the sun. Oh, and I didn't talk about the borrowed shots from Vertigo, also filmed in San Francisco, and how Lester plays with a lot of Hitchcock's favorite themes in a sidelong, more cynical fashion.’(2)
Petulia got many enthusiastic reviews when first released. It also received some skeptical pans, including a big thumbs-down from the influential Pauline Kael, who called it "come-dressed-as-the-sick-soul-of-America-party" and blamed "the mass media" for hyping Lester too much. Seen today, when its style seems downright tame by Quentin Tarantino standards, the movie is an absorbing character study, a colorful time capsule, and a valuable history lesson. Turns out the Sixties weren't so Swinging after all.
The point of this unconventional approach is not just to dazzle the eyes, but to make sure the story's full meaning comes across. Petulia is sliced and diced because its characters' minds and hearts are sliced and diced, and because the shallow, artificial culture they live in has started to break apart in ways that mirror (and maybe cause) their growing incoherence. Lester's style is of a piece with the psychology and sociology he portrays-charmingly unpredictable one moment, decadent and dangerous the next. Petulia is a wake-up call for the '60s, warning that the decade has fallen under the spell of its own shining surfaces, smiley faces, and self-deluding kookiness. No wonder its characters can't get their inner selves together. They've almost forgotten they have inner selves, and that's perilous for American society, since the story's main figures aren't the hippies and dippies who crowd around the edges of some scenes, but members of the "respectable" ruling class whose escalating instability has wide-ranging consequences. "Petulia" tells the story of two very different people whose lives irrevocably intersect in a vague search for place and self in the 1960s. Lester claims to have shaped "Petulia"'s characters as symbols of 1960s America, and yet rarely has the cinema offered such complex and three-dimensional characters. The title character in particular, played by Julie Christie, is a young "kook" recently married into comfortable wealth, and whose behavior is not only unpredictable, but erratic to the point of schizophrenia. George C. Scott's Archie is a rather serious doctor in the midst of a divorce (he terminated his marriage, he says, because he'd tired of being "a handsome couple") and making a rather forced effort to enjoy new bachelorhood. In the opening scene, Petulia tells Archie, "I've been married six months and I've never had an affair." After much discussion, but no kissing, Archie and Petulia decide, almost out of resignation, to have an affair. What these characters take from each other is a very complicated thing, which I can only describe as brief protection from what seems inevitable loneliness. Certainly they're an interesting pair. Über-critic Pauline Kael describes Julie Christie's portrayal of Petulia as "lewd and anxious, expressive and empty, brilliantly faceted but with something central missing, almost as if there's no woman inside." I couldn't say it better myself. George C. Scott's Archie is a brilliantly understated masculine foil to this Petulia. Richard Combs wrote of him in Film Comment as representative of a type "reduced to inertia, impotence, terminal ambivalence by the fact that they see too clearly and feel too keenly the compromises that society demands."
The Swinging Sixties! If you remember them, an old joke goes, you weren't really there. But if you don't remember them, chances are you weren't born yet. Today's younger generations have taken their image of the period largely from movies, including a few by Richard Lester that helped define the scene while the scene was still happening. Petulia, now available on DVD from Warner Home Video, was one of these. So were the Beatles comedies A Hard Day's Night and Help!, released to huge acclaim in 1964 and 1965, and The Knack...and How to Get It, also from 1965. All combine quintessential '60s content with anything-goes editing style that captures the era's unstoppable energy, which Lester-an American who moved to England in his early twenties-knew from both sides of the Atlantic.
Petulia reached theaters in 1968, the year when public fascination with youthful idealism and psychedelia hit its peak, then started its slide into polarized debate over everything from the Vietnam War to the sexual revolution. The gifted George C. Scott plays Archie, a middle-aged San Francisco physician who's getting divorced just because he got "tired of being married." Young and beautiful Julie Christie plays Petulia, a self-described "kook" who comes on to Archie at a charity rock concert, announcing to this total stranger that she's been married all of six months and hasn't had an affair yet. Her husband, played with remarkable subtlety by Richard Chamberlain, is a businessman with a violent streak lurking behind his handsome smile. Important subplots center on Archie's unhappy former wife, his two young children, and a cheeky Mexican boy who brings major complications to Petulia's already complicated life. All this adds up to a sometimes intricate plot, but its main concern is the strange relationship between Archie and Petulia at once a casual fling, a potentially life-changing love affair, and a psychological puzzle too hard for either of them to solve. Petulia calls herself a kook but is far more disturbed than such a breezy word conveys; her husband is an abusive tyrant disguised as a regular guy; and even Archie, the most stable and successful of the group, is on his way to becoming an exhausted has-been whose ambition is simply to "feel something" again before he gets too old to care.
1. www.mcnblogs.com/digitaldretzka/2006/06/not_in_any_hurry_to_see_summer.html
2. www.crushedbyinertia.blogspot.com/2006/06/petulia.html
3. www.tcm.com/movienews/index?cid=136128&rss=mrqe
4. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Lester
5. www.web.mit.edu/ipc/people/director/index.html
Thursday, November 22, 2007
Reflective essay
In general I spent more than three hours for writing my work. All this is because of my own organization of writing. First of all perfectionism is a point of my character and it makes me do my best even if I do the work which requires not so much my attention. The desire to know as much information as possible in any subject I get as a task to write about makes me mad while working. Searching of proper and useful material takes one third of total time spent on work. After looking through some sources and links comes the second revision in order to pick up only worth ones. This also takes some time. Then comes wish just to sit calm and overthink everything accepted and perceived, but, as usual there is no time for such useful practice. After that making a plan or some kind of drafts come and only then some readable text with the beginning, main plot and conclusions. Checking spelling and grammar correctness also takes about 30 min. Usually, when I finish writing an assay I realize that it is not ideal and I have a strong desire to rewrite it completely. I begin to change paragraphs and find better synonyms and so on and so force.
To reflect your thoughts and ideas is not the same than to write something for which you have to make search, that is why it takes less time and efforts. Writing reflective Essay is much alike a stream of conscience when you just type your thoughts and that is all. But, of course, sometimes it is much easier just to render some topic.
The biggest problem is to collect the coming thoughts. After observing so much information I just do not know what will truly reflect the topic? Will I be successful in doing this? Especially get on nerves time limit. It is so needable at least a day to nourish everything in mind. Speaking about this very essay after having seen the advert of Dove, I just had some slight feelings, the edge of which I wanted to catch but failed. Continuous thoughts about time which passes quickly kill the entire creativeness. I wanted so much someone else to see that advert and to follow her\his reaction. But I had no opportunity to do this, unfortunately. This was the main problem. I see no ways to get rid of it, because it is just my style — to think before writing. If to mention future projects, I mean essays, It is so important to have much more time in order to absorb everything.
The global revision is the hardest and the most interesting work. Here you should read your compositions, to see their structure, to get sure that everything is logical and reflects the theme, that is that everything is connected with requirements and demands. When I just started my work I had a huge lot of information to speak about, but ell that was not what I wanted, the information was close to the topic but could not help me in my writing. The majority of revision is done in the beginning of work and in the last steps before sending the written document.
The sect most important and difficult is making all the sentences reflect the style, what is required. Sentences play a great role in text structure. You know, for example, composite sentences with homogeneous parts of speech, especially in the manner of enumeration, reflect the mood of anxiety, interest, rapidness, speed, strong emotions. And vice versa, long sentences with detachments, some complicated details reflect tiredness, boredom, and so on. I understand that the text should be neutral and all my emotions should be behind the given text, that is why sometimes it takes much time to change sentence levels to make text more objective.
This was a very interesting and exciting thing to give my writing to my peers. First of all, I tied to keep in mind that people are different, tastes differ. Everyone thought his or her responsibility to say me what they would have changed in my essay, especially in my description of events, which are going on in those two adverts of L’Oreal and Dove. I was really shocked when they agreed in the topic that really, the first advert is commercial, it is fir girl of thirteen or seventeen who are coach potatoes, who have no their style, that is why they have nothing to do but follow the recommendations of stars, of their idols and so on. The second, being social, shows that beauty is a subjective notion that has nothing in common with reality. Ideal exists to be, for other to be eager to reach, but it can not be. Thanks to my peers, they helped me much, but I will no listen to so many people any more. So many controversial ideas came.
Truly speaking they were no elements of the surprising reversal. I am a woman myself. I know what it is like – to be a woman, with drawbacks of the body and character. I think, method of contrast I used was of a great value to show the importance of the appearance and its influence on our life.
Some sentences are repeated in my paper. May be they are of no need, and it was enough to express the idea only once.
The wining points of my paper are as follows:
The topic is infinitive and endless: beauty of women.
The principle of contrast in order to show how different could be the ways to reach one and the same time.
Most people saw the described adverts, that is why it is much easier to find a common language with a reader and find a common language with him or her.
The essay is written in a easy for reading manner, that is why it will be acceptable for everyone
The weak points are:
Lack of time to do a proper work.
I try to be objective, but it is too hard to judge myself.
For me, as for a young lady, it was very interesting to know the truth about adverts. A really good, valuable product does not need any advert. All the adverts are based on human psychology, and advert makers new these simple rules when the advert will work. The first rule is to attact attention of a potential customer. Then to repeat one and the same things for several times till the client does not neglect this. The work is dome. The product is bought. The ways of achieving this are different, but the aim is very much the same. It was a good lesson, and the advert of Dove where it is shown how beauty is made, is a bright example of fiction and temporality and unreality of a real ideal. But it is so necessary to look beautiful for a woman and she will do everything possible, to come this will true.
To reflect your thoughts and ideas is not the same than to write something for which you have to make search, that is why it takes less time and efforts. Writing reflective Essay is much alike a stream of conscience when you just type your thoughts and that is all. But, of course, sometimes it is much easier just to render some topic.
The biggest problem is to collect the coming thoughts. After observing so much information I just do not know what will truly reflect the topic? Will I be successful in doing this? Especially get on nerves time limit. It is so needable at least a day to nourish everything in mind. Speaking about this very essay after having seen the advert of Dove, I just had some slight feelings, the edge of which I wanted to catch but failed. Continuous thoughts about time which passes quickly kill the entire creativeness. I wanted so much someone else to see that advert and to follow her\his reaction. But I had no opportunity to do this, unfortunately. This was the main problem. I see no ways to get rid of it, because it is just my style — to think before writing. If to mention future projects, I mean essays, It is so important to have much more time in order to absorb everything.
The global revision is the hardest and the most interesting work. Here you should read your compositions, to see their structure, to get sure that everything is logical and reflects the theme, that is that everything is connected with requirements and demands. When I just started my work I had a huge lot of information to speak about, but ell that was not what I wanted, the information was close to the topic but could not help me in my writing. The majority of revision is done in the beginning of work and in the last steps before sending the written document.
The sect most important and difficult is making all the sentences reflect the style, what is required. Sentences play a great role in text structure. You know, for example, composite sentences with homogeneous parts of speech, especially in the manner of enumeration, reflect the mood of anxiety, interest, rapidness, speed, strong emotions. And vice versa, long sentences with detachments, some complicated details reflect tiredness, boredom, and so on. I understand that the text should be neutral and all my emotions should be behind the given text, that is why sometimes it takes much time to change sentence levels to make text more objective.
This was a very interesting and exciting thing to give my writing to my peers. First of all, I tied to keep in mind that people are different, tastes differ. Everyone thought his or her responsibility to say me what they would have changed in my essay, especially in my description of events, which are going on in those two adverts of L’Oreal and Dove. I was really shocked when they agreed in the topic that really, the first advert is commercial, it is fir girl of thirteen or seventeen who are coach potatoes, who have no their style, that is why they have nothing to do but follow the recommendations of stars, of their idols and so on. The second, being social, shows that beauty is a subjective notion that has nothing in common with reality. Ideal exists to be, for other to be eager to reach, but it can not be. Thanks to my peers, they helped me much, but I will no listen to so many people any more. So many controversial ideas came.
Truly speaking they were no elements of the surprising reversal. I am a woman myself. I know what it is like – to be a woman, with drawbacks of the body and character. I think, method of contrast I used was of a great value to show the importance of the appearance and its influence on our life.
Some sentences are repeated in my paper. May be they are of no need, and it was enough to express the idea only once.
The wining points of my paper are as follows:
The topic is infinitive and endless: beauty of women.
The principle of contrast in order to show how different could be the ways to reach one and the same time.
Most people saw the described adverts, that is why it is much easier to find a common language with a reader and find a common language with him or her.
The essay is written in a easy for reading manner, that is why it will be acceptable for everyone
The weak points are:
Lack of time to do a proper work.
I try to be objective, but it is too hard to judge myself.
For me, as for a young lady, it was very interesting to know the truth about adverts. A really good, valuable product does not need any advert. All the adverts are based on human psychology, and advert makers new these simple rules when the advert will work. The first rule is to attact attention of a potential customer. Then to repeat one and the same things for several times till the client does not neglect this. The work is dome. The product is bought. The ways of achieving this are different, but the aim is very much the same. It was a good lesson, and the advert of Dove where it is shown how beauty is made, is a bright example of fiction and temporality and unreality of a real ideal. But it is so necessary to look beautiful for a woman and she will do everything possible, to come this will true.
Server based networks
There are some the common elements of server-based networks are as follows:
The first one is a computer on the network that services or requests recourses from other computers or at list one on he network. It is also reoffered to be a human user or software sometimes. The second is a computer on the A computer on the network that manages shared resources. The third is the device that enables a workstation to connect to the network and communicate with other computers. The forth is the software that runs on a file server and enables the server to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The next element is a server that manages shared resources. The following one is server, or other device or a client on a network that is identified by a unique identifying number, known as its network address. Then comes the physical layout of a computer network. Examples include bus, ring, star, and hybrid. The rules that the network uses to transfer data are also to be mentioned. These ensure that data are transferred whole, in sequence, and without error. The last but not the least are: the distinct units of data that are transmitted from one computer on the network to another; the scheme for assigning a unique identifying number to every device on the network; the means through which data are transmitted and received.
Nowadays there are some job specialties that are in high demand in the network field. Among them we can innumerate the following: the system administrator, the programmer, service engineer, flash developers, designers, coders and so on.
Foe example, for programmers such a job listing will be proper
* Company *URL (e.g. Example: "http://www.google.com") *Tile (Example: "PHP Programmer") *Location (city or town, state) *Category "Programming"
*Description (no more than 1000 chars) *How to apply (e.g: "Send a resume to mike@company.com")
For a system administrators: * title *institution *location(city-state) *job category *posting date *application due date *description (experience, education, salary, application requirements) * application information( postal address, website link, phone/fax/email) * additional information (incl. relevant links)
For service engineers: * category *contract terms *date * duration (implied) * contact info *location *title *description *principals/recruiters
‘MAC address is a unique identifier which is attached to most network adapters. MAC addresses, unlike IP addresses and IPX addresses, are not divided into "host" and "network" portions, so a host cannot determine, from the MAC address of another host, whether that host is on the same layer 2 network segment as the sending host or a network segment bridged to that network segment and, if it's not, cannot determine the MAC address of a router that is on the same network segment as the sending host or a segment bridged to that network segment and that can help route the packet to the destination host. This is the main difference between MAC addresses and Network layer addresses’ (1)
‘The network layer is level three of the seven level OSI model as well as of the five layer TCP/IP model. In the four layer TCP/IP reference model it is called Internet layer, which is the second layer from below. It responds to service requests from the transport layer and issues service requests to the data link layer. In essence, the network layer is responsible for end to end (source to destination) packet delivery, whereas the data link layer is responsible for node to node (hop to hop) packet delivery.’ (2)
The Session layer controls the sessions (dialogues) between computers. It manages, establishes and terminates the connections between the remote and local application. It provides for either duplex or half-duplex operation and establishes adjournment, checkpointing, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for "graceful close" of sessions, which is a property of TCP, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet protocol suite.
The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, thus relieving the upper layers from any concern while providing reliable and cost-effective data transfer. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link. Some protocols are state and connection orientated. The best known example of a layer 4 protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
1. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_address
2. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_layerwww.len.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer
The first one is a computer on the network that services or requests recourses from other computers or at list one on he network. It is also reoffered to be a human user or software sometimes. The second is a computer on the A computer on the network that manages shared resources. The third is the device that enables a workstation to connect to the network and communicate with other computers. The forth is the software that runs on a file server and enables the server to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The next element is a server that manages shared resources. The following one is server, or other device or a client on a network that is identified by a unique identifying number, known as its network address. Then comes the physical layout of a computer network. Examples include bus, ring, star, and hybrid. The rules that the network uses to transfer data are also to be mentioned. These ensure that data are transferred whole, in sequence, and without error. The last but not the least are: the distinct units of data that are transmitted from one computer on the network to another; the scheme for assigning a unique identifying number to every device on the network; the means through which data are transmitted and received.
Nowadays there are some job specialties that are in high demand in the network field. Among them we can innumerate the following: the system administrator, the programmer, service engineer, flash developers, designers, coders and so on.
Foe example, for programmers such a job listing will be proper
* Company *URL (e.g. Example: "http://www.google.com") *Tile (Example: "PHP Programmer") *Location (city or town, state) *Category "Programming"
*Description (no more than 1000 chars) *How to apply (e.g: "Send a resume to mike@company.com")
For a system administrators: * title *institution *location(city-state) *job category *posting date *application due date *description (experience, education, salary, application requirements) * application information( postal address, website link, phone/fax/email) * additional information (incl. relevant links)
For service engineers: * category *contract terms *date * duration (implied) * contact info *location *title *description *principals/recruiters
‘MAC address is a unique identifier which is attached to most network adapters. MAC addresses, unlike IP addresses and IPX addresses, are not divided into "host" and "network" portions, so a host cannot determine, from the MAC address of another host, whether that host is on the same layer 2 network segment as the sending host or a network segment bridged to that network segment and, if it's not, cannot determine the MAC address of a router that is on the same network segment as the sending host or a segment bridged to that network segment and that can help route the packet to the destination host. This is the main difference between MAC addresses and Network layer addresses’ (1)
‘The network layer is level three of the seven level OSI model as well as of the five layer TCP/IP model. In the four layer TCP/IP reference model it is called Internet layer, which is the second layer from below. It responds to service requests from the transport layer and issues service requests to the data link layer. In essence, the network layer is responsible for end to end (source to destination) packet delivery, whereas the data link layer is responsible for node to node (hop to hop) packet delivery.’ (2)
The Session layer controls the sessions (dialogues) between computers. It manages, establishes and terminates the connections between the remote and local application. It provides for either duplex or half-duplex operation and establishes adjournment, checkpointing, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for "graceful close" of sessions, which is a property of TCP, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet protocol suite.
The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, thus relieving the upper layers from any concern while providing reliable and cost-effective data transfer. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link. Some protocols are state and connection orientated. The best known example of a layer 4 protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
1. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_address
2. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_layerwww.len.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer
Key issue analysis on the article by Primeaux, When MR=MC: Ethical efficiencies in valuing and pricing
Patrick Primeaux, SM and John Stieber believe that good ethics and good business are synonymous. But in my opinion Primeaux and Stieber’s argument (MR =MC) contains several mistakes. After arguing that it is unethical for a firm to produce at a point where marginal revenue exceeds marginal cost, because the community will have fewer goods and services than if the firm maximized its profit, they claim that if the firm produces at a point where marginal revenue is less than marginal cost (MR < MC), it is choosing a level of output that is greater than the profit-maximizing output, and the community has more goods and services. The authors offer in support of their position an analogy between business and football: The individual athlete approaches a game of football with his or her own personal sensibility to a certain philosophical perspective, religious commitment, and adherence to the law. That sensibility may even define the individual athlete and his or her relationships with others. In practice, however, that sensibility is “bracketed” or suspended as the rules of the game assume precedence. Of course, the individual can make a prior choice to play or not to play, and perhaps philosophical, religious or legal commitments may inspire that choice. But once that choice has been made the rules of football dictate a certain behavior. One weakness of this analogy is that playing football is an optional activity, while business is the primary means of earning a living wage in industrialized countries. Hundreds of millions of people have few alternatives other than to “play” business. Second, there is more than one set of business rules, as Michel Albert implies in the title and argues in the text of Capitalisme contre capitalisme. As a matter of fact Primeaux and Stieber do not have an ethical theory at all; they simply call a particular economic theory their theory of business ethics. They belong to the tradition of economism, which attempts to apply economic theory beyond the boundaries of its relevance. One of the key issues of the essay is the idea of a poor managerial skills and their affect on a company’s policy (including ethical aspects). Two of the authors believe that a manager whose personal ethics conflicts with his or her firm’s profit maximization, but who is able to reconcile the conflict and stay with the firm, has “sold all or part of his or her ethics for another set of ethics”. They explain that one of the major postulates of economics is that personal attributes and talents such as self-respect, decency and ethics are also economic goods as are food, shelter and health care. Like all economic goods, they also are bought and sold… According to the authors, “Like other people, managers barter with their ethics. They trade, as everyone does, their childhood ethics for adult ethics. If they didn’t, they wouldn’t mature. They also sell their ethics for a money price, even putting aside/reconciling their personal ethics for a good-paying job”. One of the reasons Primeaux and Stieber are able to reconcile business ethics and profit maximization is that they avoid (and believe managers should avoid) the responsibility of judging whether a firm’s products are good. They believe that the role of business within society is to “provide the goods and services the consumer wants”. When business men and women profit maximize, i.e., allocate resources efficiently, people have more of the things they want, and that is good. When they do not profit maximize, i.e., allocate scarce resources inefficiently, people have less of the things they want, and that is bad... Since ethics is basically a study of good and bad activity, then the decision to profit maximize or not to profit maximize becomes a question of applied or practical ethics. Social effect of such a possible solution is that when business men and women profit maximize, i.e., allocate resources efficiently, people have more of the things they want, and that is good. When they do not profit maximize, i.e., allocate scarce resources inefficiently, people have less of the things they want, and that is bad... Since ethics is basically a study of good and bad activity, then the decision to profit maximize or not to profit maximize becomes a question of applied or practical ethics. The problem with this position, however, is that it is not good to produce whatever people want when what people want is not good. Business managers are responsible for exercising judgment, including judgment about personal and social needs. Whether the behavior of buying and selling one’s personal ethics is right or wrong is the realm of the philosophical or religious moralist. We know that people do it and that the discipline of economics describes how they do it. It is also the realm of the philosopher to identify the boundaries of other academic realms. Primeaux and Stieber’s attempt to include the “buying and selling” of ethics within economics is a case of academic imperialism, an attempt to include within its empire territory that belongs to other academic disciplines. And their attempt to demonstrate that good ethics and good business are synonymous is unsuccessful, because it includes no ethical theory. It merely reduces business ethics to economics and then shows that economics and economics are synonymous. As Primeaux and Stieber understand it, ethics plays two roles in relation to business management: one internal and one external to the firm. Internally, ethics is by definition equivalent to producing whatever consumers want to buy at the point where marginal cost equals marginal revenue. There is no other role for ethics to play within the firm. Externally, since the ethics of consumers influences what they wish to buy, the ethics of society must be taken into account by managers when deciding what to produce, so they can maximize profit. Interestingly, however, business ethics and consumer ethics are quite different in nature. Within the firm, ethics is absolute and nonindividualistic. If managers believe that their firms’ profit-maximizing actions are unethical, they are obligated either to alter their personal ethics or to resign. It opens the doors for violating another rule of good business and good business ethics – allowing one’s individual concerns and personal ethics to enter into and direct decision-making for the firm. This discussion of the Value of the Marginal Physical Product of the factors of production adds an important dimension to our previous discussions of economic efficiency and the behavioral, ethical dimensions of profit maximization. It also serves to define principles governing opportunity-opportunity-cost decision making in a more precise manner. Accordingly, the role of the Value of Marginal Physical Product can be more readily appreciated as contributing to a better appreciation of business ethics. Profit maximization, and its emphasis on opportunity costs, especially with respect to the factors of production, provides an integrated context for business ethics. The singlemost advantage to this kind of proposal is its paradigmatic quality. It encompasses and incorporates all of the constituent parts of the whole, relates theory to practice, thought to behavior, and offers a context in which to direct the parts as well as the whole. Moreover, the paradigm of profit maximization recommends a basic ethical premise to which all can agree: any kind of individualistic self-aggrandizement is antithetical to business. This is a basic tenet to which religious, philosophical, and legal ethics can ascribe. Because it recognizes profit as the principle objective of business, the paradigm of profit maximization fulfills the ethical mandate for business better than any other. It provides, both mathematically and behaviorally, economically and practically, that, of its very nature, business is a communal undertaking which cannot tolerate greed, at least not in the long run. Rather, profit maximization seeks the personal and social well-being of all its stakeholders, and demands consideration of economic resources, people as well as things, as fine, scarce, and limited. It also demands consideration of these economic resources as interdependent. Perhaps more than anywhere else, this communal, social interdependence is reflected in a common theoretical and practical attention to the costs and payments to the factors of production according to the respective contribution of each to total revenue. References Lee, D, R., Opportunities and costs. The Freeman, 49(3) March, 1999, pp. 52-53. Michel Albert, Capitalisme contre capitalisme, Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1991; trans. Paul Haviland, Capitalism against Capitalism, London: Whurr Publishers, 1993; Capitalism vs. Capitalism, New York: Four Walls, Eight Windows, 1993. Milton Friedman, “The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits”, New York Times Magazine, 13 September 1970. Nowark, M.A. Sigmund,K, & Leibowitz, M.L. Cooperation versus Competition. Financial Analysis Journal, 56(4) July/August, 2000, pp. 13-22. Patrick Primeaux and John Stieber, “Profit Maximization: The Ethical Mandate of Business”, Journal of Business Ethics, XIII (1994), pp. 287-94. Primeaux, P, & Stieber, J, When MR=MC: Ethical efficiencies in valuing and pricing. Journal of Business ethics, 18(2) January, 1999, pp. 201-211.
Wednesday, November 21, 2007
Where does a firm's responsibility for its product end?
“When I hear businessmen speak eloquently about the "social responsibilities of business in a free-enterprise system," I am reminded of the wonderful line about the Frenchman who discovered at the age of 70 that he had been speaking prose all his life.”
M. Friedman
Much has been said and written about the ethical and social responsibility of the business community in general and the corporate leaders in particular. Most recently we have witnessed a number of corporations demonstrating genuine gestures of social responsibility by extending huge financial assistance to the destitute and the poor as well as to the educational institutions. Such philanthropic acts are highly commendable and will perpetually remain in the minds of the recipients and the public.
In general Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a concept that suggests that commercial corporations have a duty of care to all of their stakeholders in all aspects of their business operations.
A widely quoted definition by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development states that "Corporate social responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large." (CSR: Meeting Changing Expectations, 1999). This holistic approach to business regards organizations as (for example) being full partners in their communities, rather than seeing them more narrowly as being primarily in business to make profits and serve the needs of their shareholders.
The corporate sector brings goods and services of all types within society's reach. It also contributes substantially to the country's income and wealth and parts some portion to the government in the form of taxes. It generates a major proportion of the nation's employment and provides an important impetus to the growth and expansion of the economy apart from drawing in foreign investments and the much needed foreign exchange. It does play a significant role in determining the quality of life arising out of the impacts of the by-products of its legitimate activities on society and on the physical and social environment.
CSR is closely linked with the principles of Sustainable Development which argue that enterprises should be obliged to make decisions based not only on financial/economic factors (e.g. Profits, Return on Investment, dividend payments etc.) but also on the social, environmental and other consequences of their activities.
Thus Corporate Social Responsibility has become an important part of any company's life. Corporations must give back to the society from which it draws its existence. More and more, the value of a corporation is determined not only by its "bottom line" but by its contribution to the society and country that it serves.
According to Milton Friedman, “The businessmen believe that they are defending free enterprise when they declaim that business is not concerned "merely" with profit but also with promoting desirable "social" ends; that business has a "social conscience" and takes seriously its responsibilities for providing employment, eliminating discrimination, avoiding pollution and whatever else may be the catchwords of the contemporary crop of reformers”. From a business perspective, working under government contracts can be a very lucrative proposition. In general, a stream of orders keep coming in, revenue increases and the company grows in the aggregate. The obvious downfalls to working in this manner are both higher quality expected as well as the extensive research and documentation required for government contracts. If a part fails to perform correctly it can cause minor glitches as well as problems that can carry serious repercussions, such as in the National Semiconductor case. When both the culpable component and company are found, the question arises of how extensive these repercussions should be. Is the company as an entity liable or do you look into individual employees within that company? From an ethical perspective one would have to look at the mitigating factors of both the employees and their superiors along with the role of others in the failure of these components. Next you would have to analyze the final ruling from a corporate perspective and then we must examine the macro issue of corporate responsibility in order to attempt to find a resolution for cases like these.
The first mitigating factor involved in the National Semiconductor case is the uncertainty, on the part of the employees, on the duties that they were assigned. It is plausible that during the testing procedure, an employee couldn’t distinguish which parts they were to test under government standards and commercial standards. In some cases they might have even been misinformed on the final consumers of the products that they tested. In fact, ignorance on the part of the employees would fully excuse them from any moral responsibility for any damage that may result from their work. Whether it is decided that an employee is fully excused, or is given some moral responsibility, would have to be looked at on an individual basis.The second mitigating factor is the duress or threats that an employee might suffer if they do not follow through with their assignment. After the bogus testing was completed in the National Semiconductor labs, the documentation department also had to falsify documents stating that the parts had surpassed the governmental testing standards. From a legal and ethical standpoint, both the testers and the writers of the reports were merely acting as agents on direct orders from a superior. This was also the case when the plant in Singapore refused to falsify the documents and were later falsified by the employees at the have California plant before being submitted to the approval committees (Velazquez, 1992, p.53). The writers of the reports were well aware of the situation yet they acted in this manner on the instruction of a supervisor. Acting in an ethical manner becomes a secondary priority in this type of environment. As stated by Alan Reder, . . . if they [the employees] feel they will suffer retribution, if they report a problem, they aren’t too likely to open their mouths. (113). The workers knew that if the reports were not falsified they would come under questioning and perhaps their employment would go into jeopardy. Although working under these conditions does not fully excuse employees from moral fault, it does start the divulging process for determining the order of the chain of command of superiors and it helps to narrow down the person or department that issued the original request for the unethical acts.
The third mitigating factor is one that perhaps encompasses the majority of the employees in the National Semiconductor case. We have to balance the direct involvement that each employee had with the defective parts. Thus, it has to be made clear that many of the employees did not have a direct duty with the testing departments or with the parts that eventually failed. Even employees, or sub-contractors, that were directly involved with the production were not aware of the incompetence on the part of the testing department. For example, the electrical engineer that designed the defective computer chip could act in good faith that it would be tested to ensure that it did indeed meet the required government endurance tests. Also, for the employees that handled the part after the testing process, they were dealing with what they believed to be a component that met every governmental standard. If it was not tested properly, and did eventually fail, isn’t the testing department more morally responsible than the designer or the assembly line worker that was in charge of installing the chip? Plus, in large corporations there may be several testing departments and is some cases one may be held more responsible than another depending on their involvement. A process like this can serve the dual purpose of finding irresponsible employees as well as those that are morally excused.
The fourth mitigating factor in cases of this nature is the gauging of the seriousness of the fault or error caused by this product. Since National Semiconductor was repeatedly being reinstated to the listed of approved government contractors, one can safely assume that the level of seriousness, in the opinion of the contractor approval committees, is not of monumental importance. Yet one has to wonder how this case would have been different if the lack of testing did cause the loss of life in either a domestic or foreign military setting. Perhaps the repercussions would have come faster much more stringent. The fact that National Semiconductor did not cause a death does not make them a safe company. They are still to be held responsible for any errors that their products cause, no matter the magnitude.
As for the opposition to the delegating of moral responsibility, mitigating factors and excusing factors, they would argue that the entity of the corporation as a whole should be held responsible. The executives within a corporation should not be forced to bring out all of the employees responsible into a public forum. A company should be reprimanded and be left alone to carry out its own internal investigation and repercussions. From a business law perspective this is the ideal case since a corporation is defined as being a separate legal entity. Furthermore, the opposition would argue that this resolution would benefit both the company and the government since it would not inconvenience either party. The original resolution in the National Semiconductor case was along these lines. The government permanently removed National from its approved contractors list and then National set out to untangle the web of culpability within its own confines. This allowed a relatively quick resolution as well as the ideal scenario for National Semiconductor.
In response, one could argue that the entity of a corporation has no morals or even a concept of the word; it is only as moral and ethical as the employees that work in that entity. All of the employees, including top ranking executives are working towards advancing the entity known as their corporation (Capitman, 1973, p. 117). All employees, including the sub-contractors and assembly line workers, are in some part morally responsible because they should have been clear on their employment duties and they all should have been aware of which parts were intended for government use. Ambiguity is not an excusing factor of moral responsibility for the workers. Also, the fact that some employees failed to act in an ethical manner gives even more moral responsibility to that employee. While some are definitely more morally responsible than others, every employee has some burden of weight in this case. In fact, when the government reached a final resolution, they decided to further impose repercussions and certain employees of National Semiconductor were banned from future work in any government office (Velazquez, 1992, p. 54).
Looking at the case from the standpoint of National Semiconductor, the outcome was favorable considering the alternate steps that the government could take. As explained before, it is ideal for a company to be able to conduct its own investigation as well as its own punishments. After all, it would be best for a company to determine what specific departments are responsible rather than having a court of law impose a burden on every employee in its corporation. Yet, since there are ethical issues of dishonesty and secrecy involved, National Semiconductor should have conducted a thorough analysis of their employees as well as their own practices. It is through efforts like these that a corporation can raise the ethical standard of everyone in their organization.
This case brings into light the whole issue of corporate responsibility. The two sides that must ultimately be balanced are the self interests of the company, with main goal of maximum profit, and the impacts that a corporation can cause on society (Sawyer, 1979, p. 78). To further strengthen this need, one could argue that there are very few business decisions that do not affect society in way or another. In fact, with the plethora of corporations, society is being affected on various fronts; everything from water contamination to air bag safety is a concern. The biggest problem that all of us must contend with is that every decision that a business makes is gauged by the financial responsibility to their corporation instead of their social responsibility to the local community, and in some cases, the international community. This was pointed out on various occasions as the main reason why National Semiconductor falsified their reports. The cost that the full tests would incur did not outweigh their profit margins. Their business sense lead them to do what all companies want . . . maximum profit. In the opinion of the executives, they were acting in a sensible manner. After all, no executive wants to think of themselves as morally irresponsible. (Capitman, 1973, p. 118).
What does it mean to say that the corporate executive has a "social responsibility" in his capacity as businessman? If this statement is not pure rhetoric, it must mean that he is to act in some way that is not in the interest of his employers. For example, that he is to refrain from increasing the price of the product in order to contribute to the social objective of preventing inflation, even though a price in crease would be in the best interests of the corporation. Or that he is to make expenditures on reducing pollution beyond the amount that is in the best interests of the corporation or that is required by law in order to contribute to the social objective of improving the environment. Or that, at the expense of corporate profits, he is to hire "hardcore" unemployed instead of better qualified available workmen to contribute to the social objective of reducing poverty (Friedman, 1970).
The question that naturally arises, in debating corporate responsibility, is what types of checks and balances can be employed within a company to ensure that a corporation and all of its agents act in an ethical manner. Taking the example of the National Semiconductor case, one can notice many failures in moral responsibility. National Semiconductor would have to review its employees, particularly the supervisors, for basic ethical values such as honesty. Example, ultimately it was the widespread falsification of the testing documentation that caused the downfall of National Semiconductor, not the integrity of their components. In the synopsis of the case it is never mentioned that the employees initiated this idea, it would seem that it was the supervisors that gave the order to falsify the documents. In order to accomplish this, the company executives would have to encourage their employees to voice their concerns in regards to the advancement of the company. Through open communication, a company can resolve a variety of its ethical dilemmas. As for the financial aspects of the corporation, it has to decide whether the long term effects that a reprimand from the government can have outweighs their bottom line. In other words, corporations have to start moving away from the thought of instant profit and start realizing both the long term effects and benefits. These long term benefits can include a stronger sense of ethics in the work force as well as a better overall society.
Each company cannot count on "winning" to provide its ethical foundations. Each employee cannot count on "winning" to justify proper ethical behavior. It is in times of stress and worry that the foundations of ethics are so important; in these times the temptation to cut corners is greatest. Ethics should not be an appendage of success; it should part and parcel of every company and every employee, regardless of their relative market position. A successful company is naturally a better corporate citizen and employs better citizens.
To conclude, I must say that I agree with the use of mitigating factors in determining moral responsibility. A company, as defined by law, is only a name on a piece of paper. The company acts and conducts itself according to the employees that work in that entity. I use the word employee because in ethical thinking there should be no distinction of rank within a company. There are times when executives can be held directly responsible and at the same time, there are cases where employees are acting unethically without the executives knowing. Neither title of executive or employee equates to moral perfection. Therefore, when a company has acted irresponsibly, its employees must be held liable in a proportionate amount. As for the future of ethics in business I would speculate that if employees started to think more in long term benefits and profits, many of the ethical dilemmas that we face today would be greatly reduced. As mentioned before, businesses today uses the measuring stick of profitability. There needs to be a shift to the thinking of total utility for the social community in order to weigh business decisions. Opponents would argue that this is a long term plan that requires too many radical changes in the face of business. Also, there is no way that an industry wide standard can be set since there are too many types of corporations. Plus, companies have different needs and every moral rule is subjective according to the type of business that everyone conducts.
In response, I would argue that although there are no industry standards that are feasible, it is possible for every company to examine their practices as well as the attitude of their employees. There will be companies that find that they are doing fine with employees that are aware of their moral values. Yet other companies will find that they do have areas that need improvement. It is steps like these that start implementing changes. Once a few companies start to see the benefits of changes, it can help to encourage other companies to follow suit. After all, as seen in the case of National Semiconductor, mistakes in one department can cause the deterioration of an entire corporation. When the costs that are possible are taken into account, the changes required to rectify this are small in comparison.
It is important to distinguish CSR from charitable donations and "good works" (i.e., philanthropy, e.g., Habitat for Humanity or Ronald McDonald House). Corporations have often, in the past, spent money on community projects, the endowment of scholarships, and the establishment of foundations. They have also often encouraged their employees to volunteer to take part in community work and thereby create goodwill in the community which will directly enhance the reputation of the company and strengthen its brand. CSR goes beyond charity and requires that a responsible company take into full account their impact on all stakeholders and on the environment when making decisions. This requires them to balance the needs of all stakeholders with their need to make a profit and reward their shareholders adequately.
Bibliography
Barry, Norman, Anglo-American Capitalism and the Ethics of Business, Wellington, New Zealand: Business Roundtable, 1999.
Bentham, Jeremy, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, 1789; 1823.
Capitman, William. 1973. Panic In the Boardroom. New York: Anchor Press-DoubleDay Publishing.
Cheung, Steven N. S., “The Contractual Nature of the Firm”, Journal of Law & Economics, XXVI (1983), p. 3.
Fama, Eugene F., “Agency Problems and the Theory of the Firm”, Journal of Political Economy LXXXVIII, p. 2.
Friedman, Milton, “The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits”, New York Times Magazine, 13 September 1970.
Friedman, Milton, Capitalism and Freedom, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962, p. 133.
Grinyer, John R., Sinclair, C. Donald, and Ibrahim, Daing Nasir, “Management Objectives in Capital Budgeting”, Financial Practice and Education, IX, 2 (1999), p. 12.
Harris, Kathryn, Chips Maker Feels Attack on Four Sides. Los Angeles Times. April 4, 1982. Pg. B1.
Pava, Moses. 1995. Corporate Responsibility and Financial Performance. London Quorum Books.
Primeaux, Patrick and Stieber, John, “Profit Maximization: The Ethical Mandate of Business”, Journal of Business Ethics, XIII (1994), pp. 287-94.
Reder, Alan. 1944. In Pursuit of Principle and Profit. New York: G.P. Putnams Sons Publishing.
Sawyer, George. 1979. Business and Society: Managing Corporate Social Impact. Boston Houghton Mifflin Publishing.
Schuyten, Peter. To Clone A Computer. New York Times February 4, 1979. Pg. 1.Velazquez, Manuel. 1992. Business Ethics: Concepts and Cases. New Jersey Prentice Hall Publishing.
M. Friedman
Much has been said and written about the ethical and social responsibility of the business community in general and the corporate leaders in particular. Most recently we have witnessed a number of corporations demonstrating genuine gestures of social responsibility by extending huge financial assistance to the destitute and the poor as well as to the educational institutions. Such philanthropic acts are highly commendable and will perpetually remain in the minds of the recipients and the public.
In general Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a concept that suggests that commercial corporations have a duty of care to all of their stakeholders in all aspects of their business operations.
A widely quoted definition by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development states that "Corporate social responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large." (CSR: Meeting Changing Expectations, 1999). This holistic approach to business regards organizations as (for example) being full partners in their communities, rather than seeing them more narrowly as being primarily in business to make profits and serve the needs of their shareholders.
The corporate sector brings goods and services of all types within society's reach. It also contributes substantially to the country's income and wealth and parts some portion to the government in the form of taxes. It generates a major proportion of the nation's employment and provides an important impetus to the growth and expansion of the economy apart from drawing in foreign investments and the much needed foreign exchange. It does play a significant role in determining the quality of life arising out of the impacts of the by-products of its legitimate activities on society and on the physical and social environment.
CSR is closely linked with the principles of Sustainable Development which argue that enterprises should be obliged to make decisions based not only on financial/economic factors (e.g. Profits, Return on Investment, dividend payments etc.) but also on the social, environmental and other consequences of their activities.
Thus Corporate Social Responsibility has become an important part of any company's life. Corporations must give back to the society from which it draws its existence. More and more, the value of a corporation is determined not only by its "bottom line" but by its contribution to the society and country that it serves.
According to Milton Friedman, “The businessmen believe that they are defending free enterprise when they declaim that business is not concerned "merely" with profit but also with promoting desirable "social" ends; that business has a "social conscience" and takes seriously its responsibilities for providing employment, eliminating discrimination, avoiding pollution and whatever else may be the catchwords of the contemporary crop of reformers”. From a business perspective, working under government contracts can be a very lucrative proposition. In general, a stream of orders keep coming in, revenue increases and the company grows in the aggregate. The obvious downfalls to working in this manner are both higher quality expected as well as the extensive research and documentation required for government contracts. If a part fails to perform correctly it can cause minor glitches as well as problems that can carry serious repercussions, such as in the National Semiconductor case. When both the culpable component and company are found, the question arises of how extensive these repercussions should be. Is the company as an entity liable or do you look into individual employees within that company? From an ethical perspective one would have to look at the mitigating factors of both the employees and their superiors along with the role of others in the failure of these components. Next you would have to analyze the final ruling from a corporate perspective and then we must examine the macro issue of corporate responsibility in order to attempt to find a resolution for cases like these.
The first mitigating factor involved in the National Semiconductor case is the uncertainty, on the part of the employees, on the duties that they were assigned. It is plausible that during the testing procedure, an employee couldn’t distinguish which parts they were to test under government standards and commercial standards. In some cases they might have even been misinformed on the final consumers of the products that they tested. In fact, ignorance on the part of the employees would fully excuse them from any moral responsibility for any damage that may result from their work. Whether it is decided that an employee is fully excused, or is given some moral responsibility, would have to be looked at on an individual basis.The second mitigating factor is the duress or threats that an employee might suffer if they do not follow through with their assignment. After the bogus testing was completed in the National Semiconductor labs, the documentation department also had to falsify documents stating that the parts had surpassed the governmental testing standards. From a legal and ethical standpoint, both the testers and the writers of the reports were merely acting as agents on direct orders from a superior. This was also the case when the plant in Singapore refused to falsify the documents and were later falsified by the employees at the have California plant before being submitted to the approval committees (Velazquez, 1992, p.53). The writers of the reports were well aware of the situation yet they acted in this manner on the instruction of a supervisor. Acting in an ethical manner becomes a secondary priority in this type of environment. As stated by Alan Reder, . . . if they [the employees] feel they will suffer retribution, if they report a problem, they aren’t too likely to open their mouths. (113). The workers knew that if the reports were not falsified they would come under questioning and perhaps their employment would go into jeopardy. Although working under these conditions does not fully excuse employees from moral fault, it does start the divulging process for determining the order of the chain of command of superiors and it helps to narrow down the person or department that issued the original request for the unethical acts.
The third mitigating factor is one that perhaps encompasses the majority of the employees in the National Semiconductor case. We have to balance the direct involvement that each employee had with the defective parts. Thus, it has to be made clear that many of the employees did not have a direct duty with the testing departments or with the parts that eventually failed. Even employees, or sub-contractors, that were directly involved with the production were not aware of the incompetence on the part of the testing department. For example, the electrical engineer that designed the defective computer chip could act in good faith that it would be tested to ensure that it did indeed meet the required government endurance tests. Also, for the employees that handled the part after the testing process, they were dealing with what they believed to be a component that met every governmental standard. If it was not tested properly, and did eventually fail, isn’t the testing department more morally responsible than the designer or the assembly line worker that was in charge of installing the chip? Plus, in large corporations there may be several testing departments and is some cases one may be held more responsible than another depending on their involvement. A process like this can serve the dual purpose of finding irresponsible employees as well as those that are morally excused.
The fourth mitigating factor in cases of this nature is the gauging of the seriousness of the fault or error caused by this product. Since National Semiconductor was repeatedly being reinstated to the listed of approved government contractors, one can safely assume that the level of seriousness, in the opinion of the contractor approval committees, is not of monumental importance. Yet one has to wonder how this case would have been different if the lack of testing did cause the loss of life in either a domestic or foreign military setting. Perhaps the repercussions would have come faster much more stringent. The fact that National Semiconductor did not cause a death does not make them a safe company. They are still to be held responsible for any errors that their products cause, no matter the magnitude.
As for the opposition to the delegating of moral responsibility, mitigating factors and excusing factors, they would argue that the entity of the corporation as a whole should be held responsible. The executives within a corporation should not be forced to bring out all of the employees responsible into a public forum. A company should be reprimanded and be left alone to carry out its own internal investigation and repercussions. From a business law perspective this is the ideal case since a corporation is defined as being a separate legal entity. Furthermore, the opposition would argue that this resolution would benefit both the company and the government since it would not inconvenience either party. The original resolution in the National Semiconductor case was along these lines. The government permanently removed National from its approved contractors list and then National set out to untangle the web of culpability within its own confines. This allowed a relatively quick resolution as well as the ideal scenario for National Semiconductor.
In response, one could argue that the entity of a corporation has no morals or even a concept of the word; it is only as moral and ethical as the employees that work in that entity. All of the employees, including top ranking executives are working towards advancing the entity known as their corporation (Capitman, 1973, p. 117). All employees, including the sub-contractors and assembly line workers, are in some part morally responsible because they should have been clear on their employment duties and they all should have been aware of which parts were intended for government use. Ambiguity is not an excusing factor of moral responsibility for the workers. Also, the fact that some employees failed to act in an ethical manner gives even more moral responsibility to that employee. While some are definitely more morally responsible than others, every employee has some burden of weight in this case. In fact, when the government reached a final resolution, they decided to further impose repercussions and certain employees of National Semiconductor were banned from future work in any government office (Velazquez, 1992, p. 54).
Looking at the case from the standpoint of National Semiconductor, the outcome was favorable considering the alternate steps that the government could take. As explained before, it is ideal for a company to be able to conduct its own investigation as well as its own punishments. After all, it would be best for a company to determine what specific departments are responsible rather than having a court of law impose a burden on every employee in its corporation. Yet, since there are ethical issues of dishonesty and secrecy involved, National Semiconductor should have conducted a thorough analysis of their employees as well as their own practices. It is through efforts like these that a corporation can raise the ethical standard of everyone in their organization.
This case brings into light the whole issue of corporate responsibility. The two sides that must ultimately be balanced are the self interests of the company, with main goal of maximum profit, and the impacts that a corporation can cause on society (Sawyer, 1979, p. 78). To further strengthen this need, one could argue that there are very few business decisions that do not affect society in way or another. In fact, with the plethora of corporations, society is being affected on various fronts; everything from water contamination to air bag safety is a concern. The biggest problem that all of us must contend with is that every decision that a business makes is gauged by the financial responsibility to their corporation instead of their social responsibility to the local community, and in some cases, the international community. This was pointed out on various occasions as the main reason why National Semiconductor falsified their reports. The cost that the full tests would incur did not outweigh their profit margins. Their business sense lead them to do what all companies want . . . maximum profit. In the opinion of the executives, they were acting in a sensible manner. After all, no executive wants to think of themselves as morally irresponsible. (Capitman, 1973, p. 118).
What does it mean to say that the corporate executive has a "social responsibility" in his capacity as businessman? If this statement is not pure rhetoric, it must mean that he is to act in some way that is not in the interest of his employers. For example, that he is to refrain from increasing the price of the product in order to contribute to the social objective of preventing inflation, even though a price in crease would be in the best interests of the corporation. Or that he is to make expenditures on reducing pollution beyond the amount that is in the best interests of the corporation or that is required by law in order to contribute to the social objective of improving the environment. Or that, at the expense of corporate profits, he is to hire "hardcore" unemployed instead of better qualified available workmen to contribute to the social objective of reducing poverty (Friedman, 1970).
The question that naturally arises, in debating corporate responsibility, is what types of checks and balances can be employed within a company to ensure that a corporation and all of its agents act in an ethical manner. Taking the example of the National Semiconductor case, one can notice many failures in moral responsibility. National Semiconductor would have to review its employees, particularly the supervisors, for basic ethical values such as honesty. Example, ultimately it was the widespread falsification of the testing documentation that caused the downfall of National Semiconductor, not the integrity of their components. In the synopsis of the case it is never mentioned that the employees initiated this idea, it would seem that it was the supervisors that gave the order to falsify the documents. In order to accomplish this, the company executives would have to encourage their employees to voice their concerns in regards to the advancement of the company. Through open communication, a company can resolve a variety of its ethical dilemmas. As for the financial aspects of the corporation, it has to decide whether the long term effects that a reprimand from the government can have outweighs their bottom line. In other words, corporations have to start moving away from the thought of instant profit and start realizing both the long term effects and benefits. These long term benefits can include a stronger sense of ethics in the work force as well as a better overall society.
Each company cannot count on "winning" to provide its ethical foundations. Each employee cannot count on "winning" to justify proper ethical behavior. It is in times of stress and worry that the foundations of ethics are so important; in these times the temptation to cut corners is greatest. Ethics should not be an appendage of success; it should part and parcel of every company and every employee, regardless of their relative market position. A successful company is naturally a better corporate citizen and employs better citizens.
To conclude, I must say that I agree with the use of mitigating factors in determining moral responsibility. A company, as defined by law, is only a name on a piece of paper. The company acts and conducts itself according to the employees that work in that entity. I use the word employee because in ethical thinking there should be no distinction of rank within a company. There are times when executives can be held directly responsible and at the same time, there are cases where employees are acting unethically without the executives knowing. Neither title of executive or employee equates to moral perfection. Therefore, when a company has acted irresponsibly, its employees must be held liable in a proportionate amount. As for the future of ethics in business I would speculate that if employees started to think more in long term benefits and profits, many of the ethical dilemmas that we face today would be greatly reduced. As mentioned before, businesses today uses the measuring stick of profitability. There needs to be a shift to the thinking of total utility for the social community in order to weigh business decisions. Opponents would argue that this is a long term plan that requires too many radical changes in the face of business. Also, there is no way that an industry wide standard can be set since there are too many types of corporations. Plus, companies have different needs and every moral rule is subjective according to the type of business that everyone conducts.
In response, I would argue that although there are no industry standards that are feasible, it is possible for every company to examine their practices as well as the attitude of their employees. There will be companies that find that they are doing fine with employees that are aware of their moral values. Yet other companies will find that they do have areas that need improvement. It is steps like these that start implementing changes. Once a few companies start to see the benefits of changes, it can help to encourage other companies to follow suit. After all, as seen in the case of National Semiconductor, mistakes in one department can cause the deterioration of an entire corporation. When the costs that are possible are taken into account, the changes required to rectify this are small in comparison.
It is important to distinguish CSR from charitable donations and "good works" (i.e., philanthropy, e.g., Habitat for Humanity or Ronald McDonald House). Corporations have often, in the past, spent money on community projects, the endowment of scholarships, and the establishment of foundations. They have also often encouraged their employees to volunteer to take part in community work and thereby create goodwill in the community which will directly enhance the reputation of the company and strengthen its brand. CSR goes beyond charity and requires that a responsible company take into full account their impact on all stakeholders and on the environment when making decisions. This requires them to balance the needs of all stakeholders with their need to make a profit and reward their shareholders adequately.
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